Online professional development for environmental educators: strategies to foster critical thinking and social interactions

Abstract

Massive open online courses (MOOCs) offer opportunities for professional development of environmental educators globally, yet we lack understanding of participants? cognitive and social learning processes and of how instructors can enhance these processes. Based on the Community of Inquiry framework, we used a survey and coded participant discussion board and Facebook posts to examine the cognitive, social, and teaching presence in the Environmental Education: Transdisciplinary Approaches to Addressing Wicked Problems MOOC, offered by Cornell University. Rather than train educators in a specific curriculum, the goal of the MOOC is to expand educators? critical and transdisciplinary thinking about the field of environmental education and to enhance social interactions to support learning, educators, and knowledge co-creation. Results indicate that cognitive presence is higher on the discussion board whereas social presence is higher on Facebook. Over half of cognitive posts focused on exploration, a lower level of learning, whereas just less than a fifth reflected higher level integration, suggesting room for enhancing cognitive learning. Our results suggest strategies to encourage higher levels of thinking and more meaningful social interactions to foster learning, educator support, and co-creation of knowledge, thereby improving online professional development.     

语境研究的认知转向及其词汇教学意蕴

语境问题是语言研究中的一个核心问题,对语境的认识追随着语言研究的理路而嬗变。在结构主义语言研究的范式中,语境研究主要聚焦于语言层次中的内部结构关系,主张语境的形式理性;功能语言研究范式彰显语言的社会文化功能,寻求语境的工具理性;认知语言学强调语言与认知的关系,使语境研究发生认知转向,企图探索语境的关系理性。词汇作为语言有机体中最丰富、最核心的要素,它的生成、演变及其使用只能在语境的基底上得到合理的解释,作为一个重要知识领域的词汇教学研究自然离不开对语境的认知阐释。从认知语境视角看,词汇教学是调动学习者的词汇相关知识和经验论域知识的过程,彰显认知主体对词汇存在的语境阐释和理解,因为词汇意义是无数语境条件下的使用、复现特征的强化和固化,最终源于认知主体之经验。     

Knowledge acquisition as a social phenomenon

The acquisition of knowledge, the development of the individual's knowledge bases, does not occur in a vacuum. The social context, both social structure (the perceived regularities in the social network) and social knowledge, appears to be related to the individual's acquisition of knowledge. In this article, the relationship between the social world and individual knowledge acquisition is explored. A general theory is postulated and then formulated as a model. The basic theory is predicated on the assumption that social interaction is the driving force behind knowledge acquisition. A selection of results pertaining to social learning will be presented. These include, but are not limited to the following:

• ? Social structure affects knowledge acquisition; e.g., individuals in tightly knit social groups develop similar cognitive structures, but not necessarily similar evaluations of those structures.
• ? Social knowledge evolves slowly and relative to shared experience.
• ? Individual knowledge acquisition is limited; e.g., individuals and groups talk past each other because of the lack of critical paths in their respective knowledge bases.

     

Monitoring collaborative activities in computer supported collaborative learning

Monitoring the learning process in computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL) environments is a key element for supporting the efficacy of tutor actions. This article proposes an approach for analysing learning processes in a CSCL environment to support tutors in their monitoring tasks. The approach entails tracking the interactions within the communication platform to identify cues of the participative, social, cognitive, and teaching dimensions of the learning process. Both quantitative and qualitative indicators are employed to achieve a complete and thorough picture of the learning dynamics. A set of methodological and technological tools based on this approach has been tried out in the context of the online component of a blended course in educational technology addressing trainee teachers. The results of the study support the applicability of the proposed approach to content domains where discussion and reflective practice are the most effective learning strategy.     

Activity theory as a framework for designing constructivist learning environments

The epistemic assumptions of constructive learning are different from those of traditional instruction, so classical methods of needs and task analysis are inappropriate for designing constructivist learning environments (CLEs). This paper argues that activity theory provides an appropriate framework for analyzing needs, tasks, and outcomes for designing CLEs. Activity theory is a socio-cultural, socio-historical lens through which designers can analyze human activity systems. It focuses on the interaction of human activity and consciousness within its relevant environmental context. Since conscious learning emerges from activity (performance), not as a precursor to it, CLEs should attempt to replicate the activity structures, tools and sign systems, socio-cultural rules, and community expectations that performers must accommodate while acting on some object of learning. After explicating assumptions of activity theory and briefly describing the components of CLEs, this paper describes a process for using activity theory as a framework for describing the components of an activity system that can be modeled in CLEs.His current research focuses on designing constructivist learning environments, cognitive tools for learning, knowledge representation methods, problem solving, computer-supported collaborative argumentation, cognitive task analysis, and individual differences and learning.His current research focuses on designing constructivist learning environments, cognitive tools for learning, knowledge representation methods, problem solving, computer-supported collaborative argumentation, cognitive task analysis, and individual differences and learning.Her research interests include activity theory and structural knowledge.     

The Eye of the Beholder: The Interplay of Social and Cognitive Components in Change

Sociocultural and cognitive perspectives hold to epistemically different views on knowledge acquisition and change. While sociocultural perspectives point to social experience as the principal source of knowledge, cognitive perspectives emphasize the importance of the individual mind and reasoning as the primary source of knowledge. Herein, I argue that both sociocultural and cognitive influences are critical catalysts in conceptual change and that integration of these components is vital to learning. As a mechanism for supporting this contention, I explore the epistemic views of students and the role those views play in knowledge acquisition and change. Specifically, I propose a framework built on students' understandings of the relations between belief and knowledge within the change process. In over-viewing the framework, I consider potential catalysts for knowledge acquisition and change. Finally, I highlight two instructional approaches that effectively integrate the social and cognitive dimensions of change.     

Measuring social capital among youth: applications in environmental education

Although critiqued for circular reasoning and lack of definitional and analytic clarity, social capital has garnered widespread interest in two areas relevant to environmental education (EE): the impact of family and community-level social capital on positive youth development and of community-level social capital in fostering collective action to manage natural resources. Although EE is normally considered for its value relative to environmental outcomes or natural capital, intergenerational, community, and other approaches to EE may also foster social capital. Drawing on Putnam’s definition of social capital, which emphasizes civic engagement, we developed and tested for reliability a survey to measure cognitive and structural attributes of social capital among youth. We conclude that although several attributes of our instrument are useful for use with youth aged 10–18 years in EE contexts, much more work needs to be done on conceptualizing and developing measures of social capital that are relevant to EE. Further, we suggest that social capital presents a framework for how EE programs can bring youth and adults together to create the conditions that enable collective action, as a complement to ongoing work in EE focusing on individual behaviors.     

Tackling social inequality and exclusion in education: from human capital to capabilities

Both in the international context and in Flanders (the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium), research shows that many young people experience social exclusion in relation to education. However, research evidence concerning structural social inequality in education is predominantly underpinned by an outcome-based approach, since educational policies and practices are largely informed by a human capital model. Inspired by the theoretical insights of the Capability Approach, we aim to contribute to process-oriented knowledge about the ways in which educational and social welfare actors can support socially vulnerable young people in realising their capability for education rather than focusing on human capital. We draw upon a rich empirical basis of participatory biographical research with young people in the system of part-time vocational education and workplace learning, perceived as the residue of the educational cascade mechanism in Flanders and pertinently revealing problems of social exclusion and exit of young people.     

On learning ... more or less: a knowledge x process x context view of learning disabilities

The authors review the last decade of their research on learning disabilities and conclude that knowledge x process x context is the most useful way to think about children's cognitive difficulties. According to this framework, learning disabilities is seen as a result of the interplay between a poorly elaborated knowledge base (especially in language-related domains), the biologically determined efficiencies of various microlevel processes such as encoding, and the physical and social meaning attached to performance (i.e, the context). It is suggested that this framework helps explain instances of asymmetry wherein children with learning disabilities deploy a cognitive process more or less efficiently, depending on the material and task demands. It also raises several interesting questions about the presumed "specificity" of the impairment underlying learning disablement and the possibility that these children may not differ qualitatively from nonimpaired peers, only quantitatively.     

The relationship between university student learning outcomes and participation in social network services,social acceptance and attitude towards school life

Educators try to use social network services (SNSs) in their teaching because they are regarded as beneficial to student learning. However, little research to date has empirically investigated whether the use of an SNS increases university student learning outcomes. A total of 730 university students in the capital area of South Korea participated in the present study. Based on social learning theory, we developed a general structural model that included SNS participation (SP) as an exogenous variable and a range of endogenous variables: cognitive domain learning outcomes, affective domain learning outcomes, social domain learning outcomes, social acceptance (SA) and attitude towards university life (AT). The study results confirmed that the model adequately explained causal relationships between student learning outcomes and SA, AT and SP. SA was identified as a key variable because of its direct effect on learning outcomes. However, SP was considered more important because of its large indirect effects on all learning outcomes through both SA and AT.     

Linked to innovation: Shaping an innovative climate through network intentionality and educators’ social network position

This study investigates whether educators’ cognitive and structural social capital is associated with perceptions of innovative climate in charter schools. We explore a new concept to assess educators’ cognitive social capital, namely network intentionality, meaning the extent to which an educator is intentional in connecting and interacting with others. We hypothesize that network intentionality (cognitive social capital) is related to the extent to which educators perceive their school’s climate to be innovative, but that this relationship is dependent on the educator’s position in their school’s social network (structural social capital). Findings suggest that the relationship between cognitive social capital and perceptions of innovative climate is partly mediated by structural social capital. In other words, those educators with high network intentionality, as evidenced by an orientation towards connecting others, also perceive the school’s climate as being more innovative, partly because this strong network intentionality is associated with more out-going relational activity. This work provides unique insights into the factors that may be associated with teacher collaboration in successful charter schools serving traditionally underserved populations, and suggests ideas for schools wishing to support teacher collaboration and innovation.     

A multidimensional approach to examine student interdisciplinary learning in science and engineering in higher education

Preparing science and engineering students to work in interdisciplinary teams necessitates research on teaching and learning of interdisciplinary thinking. A multidimensional approach was taken to examine student interdisciplinary learning in a master course on food quality management. The collected 615 student experiences were analysed for the cognitive, emotional, and social learning dimensions using the learning theory of Illeris. Of these 615 experiences, the analysis showed that students reported 214, 194, and 207 times on, respectively, the emotional, the cognitive, and the social dimension. Per learning dimension, key learning experiences featuring interdisciplinary learning were identified such as ‘frustrations in selecting and matching disciplinary knowledge to complex problems’ (emotional), ‘understanding how to apply theoretical models or concepts to real-world situations’ (cognitive), and ‘socially engaging with peers to recognise similarities in perceptions and experiences’ (social). Furthermore, the results showed that students appreciated the cognitive dimension relatively more than the emotional and social dimensions.     

Making Multimedia in the Classroom: A Teachers' Guide

Interactive relationships in online learning communities can influence the process and quality of knowledge building. The aim of this study is to empirically investigate the relationships between network structures and social knowledge building in an asynchronous writing environment through discussion forums in a learning management system. The quality of the knowledge construction process is evaluated through content analysis, and the network structures are analyzed using a social network analysis of the response relations among participants during online discussions. Structural equation modeling is used to analyze relations between network structures and knowledge construction. Working on data extracted from a 6-week distance-learning experiment, we analyzed how 10 groups developed collaborative learning social networks when participants worked together on case resolution. The results show a positive correlation between cohesion and centralization, and the positive influence of the cohesion index and the centralization index on social presence and cognitive presence in knowledge building. However, this must be understood within the context of social networks in which messages sent to all group members occupy the center. This underlines the need for reinforcing participations that are directed to the group as a whole, and the importance of the fact the network contains both central and intermediate members. By contrast, we propose that the combination of analysis techniques used is a good option for this type of study while recognizing that it is necessary to continue validating the instruments in terms of their own theoretical suppositions.     

Towards a contemporary and comprehensive theory of learning

The modern concept of competence comprises not only relevant knowledge and skills, but also a range of personal qualities and the ability to perform adequately and flexibly in well-known and unknown situations. To be up-to-date, the concept of learning must be understood in the same broad sense, and therefore traditional learning theories must be revised. The theory presented is based on two fundamental assumptions. Firstly, that all learning includes two essentially different types of process, namely an external interaction process between the learner and his or her social, cultural and material environment, and an internal psychological process of acquisition and elaboration in which new impulses are connected with the results of prior learning. Secondly, that all learning includes three dimensions, namely, the cognitive dimension of knowledge and skills, the emotional dimension of feelings and motivation, and the social dimension of communication and co-operation—all of which are embedded in a societally situated context. In addition, the approach specifies four levels of learning and deals with what happens when intended learning does not occur. Inside this framework existing learning theories deal with different aspects. Thus the new theory has been constructed as a sort of umbrella, offering an overview and a structure of the landscape of learning which can be applied in both analysing and planning learning processes, both inside and outside of the educational system. The development of the theory is described in detail in my book, The Three Dimensions of Learning, which has been a bestseller in the Scandinavian countries since 1999, and which has now been published in English (Illeris 2002).     

CSCL环境中的社会交互

现在有很多关于计算机支持下协作学习(CSCL)异步环境中分布式学习团体(DLGs)的实证研究。研究表明当前的CSCL环境并不能完全满足人们对其支持交互的团体学习、知识共享、知识的社会建构及能力的培养的需要。在CSCL环境中,主要有两个因素阻碍我们取得预期的社会交互的成果:一是将社会交互看作是自然而然发生的,二是忽视与学习任务本身无关的社会心理交互。当前解决这个问题的办法主要是依靠教育者和教师鼓励协作学习,为了让教师从这样的负担中解脱出来,我们必须改进CSCL环境,激发和支持学习者的社会交互。     

试论化学教学中情境的内涵与功能

学科教学中情境的功能在于活化惰性知识,增进学科理解,沟通学校世界、生活世界和科学世界。在梳理、分析当前对情境的多元阐释的基础上,提出包括学科知识、生活场景、交往环境和学习活动四个要素的情境多维理解模型。情境素材选择应注意结构化的学科知识和多样化的生活场景相结合;学习活动设计应体现实践方式的多样性,挖掘情境素材的社会文化因素。     

Mobilising interpretive capital with teachers for transformation of school grounds in Kenya

This paper reports on findings from a recent collaborative participatory action research study that involved a group of teachers from two Kenyan schools in a review and development of interpretation resources and materials. It focuses on an engaging process between teachers and non-formal educators in which interpretive capital (the tools and skills of interpretation) were socially constructed, shared and made available for the transformation of school grounds to foster environmental learning. The concept of 'mobilising interpretive capital' has been applied to describe the process of generating theoretical and practical accounts of the symbolic capital within non-formal education organisations. Social construction and circulation of interpretive capital for transformation of school grounds as discussed in this paper highlights that interpretation is a learning process in which meaning is created jointly in a specific context. The teacher-centred approach adopted in this study provides an example of how research design decisions may contribute to environmental education praxis, social transformation and change.     

Qualitatively recognizing the dimensions of student environmental identity development within the classroom context

This study qualitatively explored the process of student environmental identity development (sEID) within the highly social and structured context of elementary school science. Social practice theory was used as the lens to distinguish the dimensions of sEID that were visible during a curriculum-based, in-school program focused on the issue of pollution. Student narratives, collected from small group interviews and reflective journals, were prioritized to capture the process of students in context identifying as “being for the environment.” Data collected from 35 grade six students were qualitatively coded, a network diagram was used to visualize the relationships in the data, and a research vignette was constructed. Eight dimensions were recognized as contributing to sEID; the opportunity to be an environmental actor with peers, increased awareness of environmental threat, emotional responses, self-recognition for environmental action, perceived agency, changed behavior across social contexts, social recognition for identity actions, and personal meaning. While many of these dimensions have been directly or indirectly discussed in the research on adult environmentalists, shifting the emphasis from group membership to the individual student in context led to the addition of two dimensions—personal meaning and emotional responses. Recognizing the eight dimensions of sEID is an important contribution to the literature as students engaging in environmental action as a requirement of school is distinct from the existing research. Identifying the dimensions of sEID can support the intentional design of learning sequences that foster environmental identities in school and beyond.     

Social Capital, Collective Intelligence and Expansive Learning: Thinking through the Connections. Education and the Economy

The paper seeks to draw out the connections between social capital, collective intelligence and expansive learning, interrogating the terms for their progressive potential. It sets these concepts within their socio-economic context, one which asserts that the development of social capitalwill be a vehicle for economic regeneration and competitiveness as well as a mechanism for the generation of social inclusion and cohesion. It concludes by arguing that the debate is set within a context that accepts capitalist relations and that this places a limit on the progressive potential of social capital, collective intelligence and expansive learning.     

Measuring Social Capital as an Outcome of Service Learning

Service-learning has been put forth as one of the proposed solutions to increasing social capital. However, service-learning research has not significantly addressed the impact of service learning on social capital. Unlike most previous studies, this research used quantitative analysis to measure the effect of university service-learning programs on social capital by examining the question: What impact do service-learning programs have on social capital post-graduation? This study showed that service learning addresses the civic engagement problem by providing evidence suggesting that service learning predicts social capital post-graduation.