CLIL for all? A randomised controlled field experiment with sixth-grade students on the effects of content and language integrated science learning

Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has been widely implemented in Europe. This article presents a randomised controlled field experiment on the effects of CLIL on students' science learning. Thirty sixth-grade intermediate-track German secondary-school classes (722 students) were randomly assigned to learn (5 lessons, 90 min each) a physics topic taught either in German or in English and German. We expected that the monolingually taught students would outperform the bilingually taught ones immediately after the intervention. For the follow-up test 6 weeks later, the same or smaller differences between the groups were expected due to the potential for a deeper processing of the subject matter in the bilingual condition. The results showed that the bilingually educated students' learning gains were smaller than the monolingually educated ones' immediately after the intervention (d = −0.21) and at follow-up (d = −0.23). The expectation of more sustainable processing was not supported.     

Dimensional comparisons in students' perceptions of the learning environment

This study aims to add empirical evidence to the generalized internal/external frames of reference (GI/E) model, according to which students' social and dimensional achievement comparisons might not only be related to students' self-concepts but also to perceptions of the learning environment. In a sample of N = 4926 German students, math and language achievements were measured along with two facets of students' perceptions of the learning environment, i.e., perceived instructional quality of math and language classes and perceived relations to math and language teachers. In the GI/E path model, achievement and perceptions of the learning environment were positively related within matching domains but negatively related or unrelated across non-matching domains. This pattern of relations indicates that social and dimensional achievement comparisons contribute to the formation of students' perceptions of the learning environment but the pattern of relations was stronger for math than for language achievement. Students' perceptions of instructional quality were more strongly related to achievement than perceptions of student–teacher relations. The findings were generalizable across same-aged elementary and secondary school students. The results are discussed regarding their implications for the proposed GI/E model and their importance for future research.     

Diagnosing misconceptions: Revealing changing decimal fraction knowledge

Conceptual change is a gradual process that occurs as students integrate new information into their existing conceptions. Throughout this process, assessing learning requires measures to diagnose misconceptions and understand how knowledge is changing. We developed three measures of misconceptions to assess students' knowledge early in instruction on decimals that measured the: 1) prevalence of misconception errors based on response patterns, 2) existence of misconceptions in a more abstract context, and 3) strength of misconceptions using confidence ratings. Students ages 9–11 (N = 297) completed the assessment at three time points. These measures revealed that whole number and role of zero misconceptions decreased and fraction misconceptions increased over time. The current measures also differentiated between weaker misconceptions that were changed after brief instruction and strongly held misconceptions. The current measures can create a more complete picture of knowledge than only measuring students' accuracy, providing a window into the conceptual change process.     

Just selection and preparation? CLIL effects on second language learning

Since most studies failed to account for selection and preparation effects, previous studies overestimated the positive effects of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) on the development of students’ receptive foreign language skills. We examined the English listening and reading comprehension development of N = 448 German CLIL and N = 4,191 non-CLIL grammar school students from grade five to grade nine using full survey data from a 2014–2019 cohort. At the beginning of the study, students were on average M = 10.38 (SD = 0.54) years old. Prior achievement and sociodemographic variables showed significant selection effects. After propensity score matching, data indicated significant preparation effects of additional English lessons. However, when both selection and preparation effects were controlled, no significant additive CLIL effect showed up. We discuss the results in light of earlier contradictory findings and recommend considering selection and preparation effects when studying CLIL effects.     

Development of German reading comprehension in two-way immersive primary schools

Two-way immersion (TWI) is a variant of the increasingly popular bilingual instruction. Most TWI research lacks longitudinal data or the consideration of background variables to control for possible selection effects. This article examines the development of German reading comprehension of TWI students (N = 984) from fourth to sixth grade compared to conventionally taught students (N = 992). The latent growth curve models showed that immersion students reached the same level of German reading comprehension over the three measurement points, even if background variables like first language, socioeconomic background, and cognitive ability were included. Despite reduced instruction in German, TWI students showed the same reading comprehension level as students in regular instruction while having the advantage of learning an additional language. Although the level of reading comprehension differed between language groups (L1 German speakers, L1 partner language speakers, simultaneous bilinguals), the learning trajectories of reading comprehension were similar.     

Toward a set of design principles for decoding training: A systematic review of studies of English as a foreign/second language listening education

Listening is a major challenge for many English as a foreign language (EFL)/English as a second language (ESL) learners. Many learners find it difficult to immediately process and segment an ongoing stream of sounds. Decoding training is one of interventions that have been used to assist EFL/ESL learners. This paper reviewed empirical studies of the effectiveness of decoding training in developing EFL/ESL learners' listening. We examined the following four major factors: (a) the types of instructional activities used; (b) the effects of decoding training on student listening outcomes; (c) the main instructional enablers of decoding training; and (d) the main instructional barriers to decoding training. The two activities most frequently used for decoding training were dictation and pronunciation instruction. A meta-analysis of 13 intervention studies showed an overall significant effect in favor of decoding training over non-decoding instruction for listening education (Hedges's g = 0.553, CI = 0.348–0.759, 95% confidence interval, p = 0.000), with no evidence of publication bias. Two theoretical frameworks, cognitive learning theory and the attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction model, were used to synthesize 33 studies to analyze the common elements that promote and hinder the development of learners' decoding skills. We proposed a set of design principles for decoding training that are expected to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of decoding training in EFL/ESL listening education.     

Planning text structure as a way to improve students' writing from sources in the compare–contrast genre

The aim of this study was to improve 7th- and 8th-grade students' (N = 83) compare–contrast reports when writing from sources. An instructional unit was designed and implemented for this purpose. It focused on increasing students' knowledge of compare–contrast text structure and on having students memorize and use a table to plan the structure of their reports. There was a large effect size of instruction, such that students in the instruction group made far greater gains in the holistic and structural quality of their writing (from pretest to posttest) than students in the control group.     

On the dynamics of students' approaches to learning: The effects of the teaching/learning environment

This study investigates the effects of the learning/teaching environment on students' approaches to learning (i.e. combination of intention and learning strategies) and compares a lecture based to a student-activating setting within the first year of elementary teacher education. Data collection (N = 790) was carried out using a pre-test/post-test method by means of the Approaches to Learning and Studying Inventory (ALSI). Though students' approaches were similar at the start of the course, a clear distinction was found after experiencing the lecture based and student-activating teaching/learning environments. However, the direction of change was opposite to the premise that student-activating instruction deepens student learning. Instead, the latter pushed students towards a Surface Approach to learning and students' Strategic Approaches suffered significant lowering.     

Self-fulfilling prophecies in media-based learning: Content relevance moderates quality expectation effects on academic achievement

In the present paper a model of self-fulfilling prophecy effects in media-based learning was developed and tested. The central model assumption was that information about an instructional medium's quality affects students' academic achievement depending on the instructional content's relevance to the student. Experiment 1 (N = 100) demonstrated higher achievement in response to positive compared to negative information, but not the predicted moderating effect of content relevance. Using a revised relevance manipulation, Experiment 2 (N = 199) identified the following moderating function of content relevance: Under moderate relevance positive information led to higher achievement, under high relevance negative information resulted in higher achievement. No differences appeared under low relevance. Path analyses revealed students' cognitive effort as significant mediator for these effects.     

The effect of content and language integrated learning on students' English and history competences – Killing two birds with one stone?

By failing to appropriately control for selection effects, most previous research has overestimated the effects of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) on the development of students' foreign language skills. Furthermore, the CLIL-effect on the content subject is still widely unknown. Therefore, the present study investigated skill development of 1806 German CLIL and non-CLIL eighth-graders in English and History controlling for a wide range of student, classroom and teacher characteristics. Results of multilevel modelling confirmed that CLIL-classrooms showed greater increases in English listening comprehension but not general English skills as measured by a C-test than non-CLIL-classrooms. In History, the increases in subject knowledge over one school year were comparable despite CLIL-students' larger amount of instruction (three instead of two hours per week). The results confirm previous, differential findings for English. For the content subject, they indicate that CLIL-classrooms need to invest substantially more time to achieve comparable learning outcomes.     

Teacher change in beliefs and practices in science and literacy instruction with English language learners

This study examined patterns of change in beliefs and practices as elementary teachers learned to establish instructional congruence, a process of mediating academic disciplines with linguistic and cultural experiences of diverse student groups. The study focused on six bilingual Hispanic teachers working with fourth‐grade, mostly Hispanic students. The results indicated that teacher learning and change occurred in different ways in the areas of science instruction, students' language and culture, English language and literacy instruction, and integration of these areas in establishing instructional congruence. The results also indicated that establishing instructional congruence was a gradual and demanding process requiring teacher reflection and insight, formal training, and extensive support and sharing. Implications for further research in promoting achievement for all students are discussed. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 41: 65–93, 2004     

Writing learning journals: Instructional support to overcome learning-strategy deficits

Although writing learning journals is a powerful learning tool, instructional support is needed to overcome deficits in the use of self-regulated learning strategies. In a 2 × 2 experimental design with high-school students (N = 70), we analysed the effects of two modes of instruction (namely, informed prompting and learning-journal example) along with prompts. Informed prompting that provided background information on the prompted strategies enhanced learning in the training and transfer session. A learning-journal example that modelled the application of the strategies primarily fostered the strategy used in the training session and learning in the transfer session. Theoretically, the results provide support for the self-regulation view of writing-to-learn.     

Instructional metacognitive knowledge: A qualitative study on conceptions of freshmen about instruction

Many studies have pointed to the limited direct effectiveness of instructional interventions and one explanation of this has drawn attention to the importance of 'instructional metacognitive knowledge'. In this exploratory study, instructional metacognitive knowledge of university freshmen is addressed by means of a survey covering: (a) instruction in general, (b) instruction in two different environments, and (c) specific delivery systems and concrete instructional interventions. While some differences appeared in the answers on different sets of questions, also large similarities were found. The results show students' knowledge about instruction to be mainly affected by their instructional experiences. The students' view is 'reactive' and places instructional agents at the core of the instructional process. The findings provide additional support for the importance of correspondence between learners' and teachers' views on instructional interventions if forms of support for students' learning are to be effective.     

Representational and decorative pictures in science and mathematics tests: Do they make a difference?

Multimedia effects in learning receive much attention in research. In contrast, effects of different picture types in testing materials are hardly studied. The present computer-based experiment with n = 404 students investigates the effects of adding a representational picture (RP) or a decorative picture (DP) to text-based educational test items on students' performance, metacognition, test-taking motivation and item processing in the domains of science and mathematics. The data show that RPs enhanced students' performance, perception of ease and test-taking pleasure in both scientific and mathematics items. Furthermore, RPs increased time on task (TOT) in mathematics, but not in scientific items. DPs had no significant effect on students’ performance, test-taking pleasure or perceived ease, while DPs reduced TOT in mathematics items. Explanations for the process-related differences are discussed. The pattern of results indicates that the multimedia principle and the coherence principle from instructional psychology can be transferred to educational testing material.     

Science Teachers' Elicitation Practices: Insights for Formative Assessment

In evaluating teachers' instructional decisions during instruction, it is clear that the nature of their elicitation is crucial for student learning. When instructional decisions are informed by information about students' conceptual understanding, significant learning is possible. This article examined the elicitation practices of two high school science teachers who indicated that they made instructional decisions based on the elicited evidence of students' knowledge but whose elicitation practices were characteristic of low-level elicitation. The teachers focused on students' responses that used canonical terms and expressed acceptable knowledge. The teachers demonstrated low-level responsiveness because they did not have full access to students' knowledge. The elicited evidence of students' knowledge that was used in making instructional decisions was not representative of students' conceptual understanding. There was, thus, a mismatch between the teachers' perspectives about their formative assessment practice and what is considered effective formative assessment.     

Academic tracking is related to gains in students' intelligence over four years: Evidence from a propensity score matching study

Ability grouping or tracking during secondary schooling is widespread. Previous research shows academic track schools are more successful than non-academic track schools in teaching mathematics, reading and foreign languages. Reasons include a more favorable student composition and higher instructional quality. However, there is less evidence that between track differences are even large enough to differentially affect the students' cognitive development. We used data from a large Hamburg panel study to test this hypothesis (N = 8628). By employing several propensity score matching algorithms we formed parallelized samples of academic track and either non-academic track students or comprehensive school students. After four years of tracking, academic track students showed considerably higher intelligence scores than their counterparts at the non-academic tracks and slightly higher scores than students at the comprehensive schools. Our results underline the importance of a cognitively stimulating learning environment in school to support students' cognitive development.     

Achievement and engagement: How student characteristics influence teacher judgments

Teachers' judgments of student characteristics are affected not only by the characteristic in question, but also by other factors. This article presents three studies examining whether students' achievement influences teachers' judgments of their engagement (as a proxy for motivation) and vice versa. First, a field study was conducted with N = 52 teachers and N = 1135 students. Structural equation modeling revealed an effect of student achievement on teacher judgments of student engagement and an effect of student engagement on teacher judgments of student achievement—above and beyond the association of each student characteristic with teacher judgments of that characteristic. These results were then replicated in two experimental studies involving a computer simulation of an instructional situation, the Simulated Classroom, with N = 40 and N = 181 teacher candidates, respectively. The psychological determinants of the effects observed are discussed, as are their practical implications.     

Learning by writing explanations: Is explaining to a fictitious student more effective than self-explaining?

Research has demonstrated that oral explaining to a fictitious student improves learning. Whether these findings replicate, when students are writing explanations, and whether instructional explaining is more effective than other explaining strategies, such as self-explaining, is unclear. In two experiments, we compared written instructional explaining to written self-explaining, and also included written retrieval and a baseline control condition. In Experiment 1 (N = 147, between-participants-design, laboratory experiment), we obtained no effect of explaining. In Experiment 2 (N = 50, within-participants-design, field-experiment), only self-explaining was more effective than our control conditions for attaining transfer. Self-explaining was more effective than instructional explaining. A cumulating meta-analysis on students’ learning revealed a small effect of instructional explaining on conceptual knowledge (g = 0.22), which was moderated by the modality of explaining (oral explaining > written explaining). These findings indicate that students who write explanations are better off self-explaining than explaining to a fictitious student.     

Online or face-to-face learning? Exploring the personal factors that predict students' choice of instructional format

Notwithstanding the growth of online learning, little is known about the personal factors that predict student decisions to enroll in online courses. This study examined the relations between several personal factors and students' choice of instructional format. After completing an online course, service academy undergraduates (N = 564) completed a survey that assessed their motivational beliefs (task value and self-efficacy), achievement-related emotions (enjoyment, boredom, and frustration), and satisfaction with the course. Results indicated that students who preferred to take future courses in an online format (as opposed to face-to-face) also reported greater confidence in their ability to learn online (self-efficacy) and greater satisfaction with their recent online learning experience. Logistic regression analysis confirmed and extended these findings, indicating that membership in the online preference group was predicted by higher self-efficacy and satisfaction, and lower task value beliefs. Taken together, results from this study provide researchers and practitioners with a better understanding of how several personal factors relate to students' choice of instructional format.