Teacher Readiness to Work With English Language Learners: Arizona Context

Arizona is one of six states leading the nation in English language learner (ELL) student enrollments and requiring all teachers to complete coursework in methods of teaching ELLs. This policy requirement has impacted teacher preparation programs and the field of teacher education as a whole. As such, there is a growing need to identify and evaluate factors that contribute to ELL teacher readiness. This exploratory survey study examines teacher readiness to work with ELLs in comprehensive public high schools in Arizona. This study was conducted using a survey instrument administered to in-service teachers (n?=?444). Correlation analyses indicate that there is a strong association between preservice preparation, preservice exposure to ELLs, and the feeling of readiness to serve ELLs. The findings make a strong case for further examination of preservice teacher preparation programs, in-service professional development, and their relationship to teacher readiness.     

Experimental Impacts of the “Quality Preschool for Ghana” Interventions on Teacher Professional Well-being,Classroom Quality,and Children’s School Readiness

We assessed the impacts of a teacher professional development program for public and private kindergartens in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. We examined impacts on teacher professional well-being, classroom quality, and children’s readiness during one school year. This cluster-randomized trial included 240 schools (teachers N?=?444; children N?=?3,345, M_age?=?5.2) randomly assigned to one of three conditions: teacher training (TT), teacher training plus parental-awareness meetings (TTPA), and controls. The programs incorporated workshops and in-classroom coaching for teachers and video-based discussion groups for parents. Moderate impacts were found on some dimensions of professional well-being (reduced burnout in the TT and TTPA conditions, reduced turnover in the TT condition), classroom quality (increased emotional support/behavior management in the TT and TTPA conditions, support for student expression in the TT condition), and small impacts on multiple domains of children’s school readiness (in the TT condition). The parental-awareness meetings had counteracting effects on child school readiness outcomes. Implications for policy and practice are discussed for Ghana and for early childhood education in low- and middle-income countries.     

Early growth trajectories of children's approaches to learning: The contribution of parent and family characteristics

Children's approaches to learning (AtL) has been identified in research and policy as a key domain of children's school readiness. However, relatively little is known about the child and family factors that shape early AtL, how it varies in the general population, or how it develops and changes through the early years of schooling. This exploratory study examined the growth of children's AtL over six occasions spanning kindergarten through second grade in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey (ECLS‐K) class of 2010–2011 as predicted by parenting and family characteristics. Latent classes of AtL growth were identified through growth mixture modeling and regressed onto explanatory covariates to uncover patterns and sources of variation in children's AtL. Results revealed higher and lower AtL growth classes significantly associated with demographic and parenting variables measured in kindergarten. In particular, sex (male) and poverty were associated with lower AtL trajectories, whereas the presence of both biological parents in the household and parent involvement at school and at home predicted membership in the higher AtL group. Implications of these findings for further clarification and exploration of AtL as a construct are discussed.     

Relationship of teachers’ ratings of kindergarteners’ 21st century skills and student performance

This study investigated the relationship of kindergarten teachers’ ratings of their students’ 21st century skills (college readiness skills) with students’ behavioral and academic performance. Teachers rated the frequency that their students (n = 579) demonstrated persistence, curiosity, affective, and cognitive (e.g., critical thinking) behaviors within their classrooms via the Human Behavior Rating Scale: Brief (HBRS: Brief, a teacher rating scale. The relationship of the HBRS: Brief teachers’ ratings was compared with data the school annually collected (behavioral ratings, academic performance, student office discipline referrals [ODRs], and absences). Hierarchical linear modeling indicated that teachers’ ratings of students’ persistence and cognition behaviors were significantly associated with students’ academic performance. Teachers’ persistence, curiosity, and externalizing affect ratings were predictive of behavioral ratings and teachers’ externalizing affect ratings were significantly associated with ODRs. The results support the efficacy of investigating teacher perceptions of students’ 21st century skills with kindergarteners.     

Self-regulated learning in Singaporean context: a congeneric approach of confirmatory factor analysis

The motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ) is widely used as a self-report instrument to assess students’ motivation and self-regulation. This study utilized the MSLQ Junior High to examine the motivational beliefs and self-regulation of secondary school students (Grades 8 and 9) from Singapore. The instrument was slightly modified and administered to students (N?=?610) in mathematics and science classes. In the first sample, 314 students completed the MSLQ Junior High while a second sample of 296 students completed the revised MSLQ Junior High. Using a congeneric approach of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), the five-factor measurement model was determined with the first sample. This measurement model was further supported using a second sample and its goodness-of-fit indices were compared with other CFA models. Statistical findings showed that the five-factor structure of the revised MSLQ Junior High had a good model fit. The present study contributes a novel methodological approach by investigating the parsimony confirmatory factor structure of the revised MSLQ Junior High in local academic contexts.     

The development of a small-scale survey instrument of UK teachers to study professional use (and non-use) of and attitudes to social media

This paper documents the creation, implementation and analysis of a survey instrument designed to reveal patterns of use and attitudes towards the value of social media by UK teachers. The study was motivated to discover which teachers use social media professionally, how they use it (both personally and professionally) and attitudes to social media as a professional tool (for their students' and their own professional use). The instrument was created from verbal data from two focus group discussions regarding the use of social media in education. Attitude statements were included verbatim when practical. This instrument was placed online and practising teachers invited to complete it (n?=?216). Exploratory factor analysis and hierarchical clustering identified 9 factors from 54 attitude statements and 5 distinct teacher groups. The rich data allowed each group to be carefully defined, providing potentially invaluable information to school leaders when developing social media projects to recognize and accommodate the full range of teacher concerns and experience. The paper also addresses methodological concerns regarding instrument creation, dealing with missing data and the impact of missing data on subsequent analysis.     

Executive Functioning and School Readiness Among Preschoolers With Externalizing Problems: The Moderating Role of the Student–Teacher Relationship

Research Findings: The objective of this study was to examine the student–teacher relationship as a potential moderator of the link between executive functioning (EF) and children’s early school readiness among a clinical sample of preschoolers with externalizing behavior problems (EBP). Participants for the study included 139 preschool children (75.54% boys, M age = 5.01 years, 84.94% Hispanic/Latino) with at-risk or clinically elevated levels of EBP. The student–teacher relationship was assessed using the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale. School readiness data were composed of standardized achievement test scores and teacher reports of kindergarten readiness. EF was measured via parent and teacher reports along with standardized measures of EF, including the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task and 4 standardized subtests from the Automated Working Memory Assessment. Poorer student–teacher relationship quality was predictive of lower teacher-reported kindergarten readiness and higher academic impairment. Main effects were qualified by an interaction between EF and student–teacher relationship quality such that worse EF (parent/teacher reports and standardized performance) was only associated with lower teacher-rated kindergarten readiness for children with poorer student–teacher relationship quality. Practice or Policy: EF appears to be an important predictor of school readiness for preschool children with EBP, particularly for children experiencing poorer student–teacher relationships.     

Measuring Teacher Educators’ Researcherly Disposition: Item Development and Scale Construction

This study reports on the development of a self-reported measurement instrument – The Teacher Educators’ Researcherly Disposition Scale (TERDS) – to improve understanding of teacher educators’ researcherly disposition. Teacher educators’ researcherly disposition refers to the habit of mind to engage with research – both as consumers and producers – to improve their practice and contribute to the knowledge base on teacher education. Taking into account the shortcomings of the emerging field of teacher educator professional development research (which is largely confined to small-scale, qualitative studies), a large-scale quantitative survey study (n?=?944) was conducted. The first part of the article reports the results of factor analysis (EFA and CFA), which suggest a four-factor structure of teacher educators’ researcherly disposition: (1) ‘valuing research’ (α?=?.86), (2) ‘being a smart consumer of research’ (α?=?.89), (3) ‘being able to conduct research’ (α?=?.82), and (4) ‘conducting research’ (α?=?.87). Goodness of fit estimates were calculated, indicating good fit. The second part of the article explores differences in teacher educators’ researcherly disposition across several subgroups of teacher educators using the developed instrument. Results indicate that having research experience leads to significantly higher scores on each of the subscales. Furthermore, significantly higher scores were found for those with more than 3 years’ experience as a teacher educator, as well as for those without (prior) teaching experience in compulsory education. To conclude, the implications for further research and practices related to teacher educators’ professional development are discussed.     

The development and validation of a scale measuring teacher autonomous behaviour

In the current study a multi‐dimensional scale that measures teacher autonomous behaviour is presented. The scale is applicable across the following educational sectors: primary education, secondary education and vocational education. Based on an elaborate literature study, four theoretically relevant dimensions of teacher autonomous behaviour were derived. Psychometric characteristics of the instrument (note that the terms ‘scale’ and ‘instrument’ are used interchangeably in this article) were tested among a sample of Dutch teachers working in primary, secondary and vocational education (N = 1111). The validity of our instrument was tested in several ways. First, by performing confirmatory factor analysis, we tested the factorial structure, which confirmed the hypothesised four dimensions: (1) primary work processes in the class; (2) curriculum implementation; (3) participation in decision making at school; (4) professional development. Thereafter, we calculated the scale's reliability, which appeared to be excellent. In addition, we tested for measurement invariance by cross‐validating the study in the educational sectors mentioned above. Also, the convergent, divergent and predictive validity was investigated. Teacher autonomy appeared to predict workplace learning, more specifically experimenting, reflecting and school development. Finally, we investigated whether transformational leadership can facilitate teacher autonomy, which appeared to be the case. The results empirically confirm the four dimensions of teacher autonomous behaviour, which we derived from theory, and offer solid proof of the psychometric properties of our instrument. The instrument can be used by school leaders and policy makers to monitor autonomous behaviour. More generally, the development and use of this instrument helps us understand teacher autonomous behaviour and teacher professionalism.     

DIMENSIONALITY AND MEASUREMENT INVARIANCE OF A SCHOOL READINESS SCREENER BY ETHNICITY AND HOME LANGUAGE

This study examined the dimensionality and measurement invariance of the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP) when used to rate the school readiness of children from different ethnic backgrounds (Latino or White, non‐Latino), as well as from households where a different language was predominant (Spanish or English). Teachers rated the readiness of 9,335 children during the first month of kindergarten in four ethnically diverse, medium‐sized school districts in central California. From the total sample, two overlapping subsamples (S1 and S2) were identified. First, a series of confirmatory factor analyses were conducted with S1 (n = 7,787) to examine the dimensionality and measurement invariance of the KSEP with children who identified as either Latino or White at the time of kindergarten enrollment. Next, the same set of analyses were replicated with S2 (n = 9, 234) to examine whether results held for students from households where the primary language spoken was Spanish or English. Results yielded evidence supporting a two‐factor structure encompassing social‐emotional and cognitive dimensions of children's readiness. In addition, results showed the KSEP exhibited measurement invariance across student ethnicities (Latino/White) and home languages (Spanish/English). The results of this study provide psychometric evidence that is particularly important for a universal school readiness screener.     

K–12 Blended Teaching Readiness: Model and Instrument Development

Abstract

An increasing number of K–12 schools have adopted blended learning approaches. Current empirical research has been sparse regarding preparing teachers for blended teaching, including the skills they must develop to teach in blended contexts. This research is focused on that weakness, with the purposes of systematically identifying the skills needed for teaching in a blended learning context and of developing and testing an instrument that can be used to determine individual and school-wide readiness for blended teaching. In this study we present a measurement model used to develop items for measuring K–12 blended learning readiness. Specifically the instrument contained the following top-level areas: (a) foundational knowledge, skills, and dispositions, (b) instructional planning, (c) instructional methods and strategies, (d) assessment and evaluation, and (e) management. Each top-level construct also had two to four subconstructs. Through confirmatory factor analysis using survey responses from 2,290?K–12 teachers we found that the data met all four fit statistics cutoffs set forth in the literature (root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA]= 0.041, comparative fit index [CFI]?=?0.926, Tucker–Lewis index [TLI]?=?0.923, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR]?=?0.041, X2?=?978.934, df?=?1992).     

Validating the Research-Based Early Math Assessment (REMA) among rural children in Southwest United States

Children attending rural schools start kindergarten with lower mathematics achievement than their peers in urban schools and the gap increases during the later academic years. A valid theory and research-based measure is needed to identify the weakness of kindergarteners attending rural schools, so early interventions in mathematics can be designed. The purposes of this study are to: (1) validate a Research-Based Early Math Assessment (REMA) among 249 first-time kindergarteners attending rural schools using the Rasch model (Rasch, 1980); and (2) use the Rasch estimated ability scores to investigate differences in rural kindergarteners’ performance on the REMA across several subgroups (gender, ethnicity, poverty, guardian’s education, preschool attendance, and age). Findings showed that the REMA items fit within the mathematics competence of kindergarteners attending rural schools. Further, findings indicated that ethnicity, poverty, guardian’s education, preschool attendance, and age are factors affecting rural kindergarteners’ ability to perform on the REMA.     

Validation and profile of Chinese pre-service teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge scale

Researchers state that teachers in different contexts reported different technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). This phenomenon may partially be explained by cultural differences. Based on this consideration, the development and validation of the Chinese pre-service teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge (CTPCK) scale is described in this article. The sample was split into two subsamples on random basis (n1 = 229, n2 = 207) for the purpose of conducting (1) exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and (2) confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), respectively. After the EFA, the CTPCK scale excluded six items and included eight factors with 42 items. Reliability and correlations were discussed. The findings revealed that the CTPCK scale was a valid and reliable instrument for measuring the TPACK of Chinese pre-service teachers’ knowledge with or without linking educational technology.     

The Transition from Early Child Care to Preschool: Emerging Toddler Skills and Readiness for Group-Based Learning

Research Findings: National policy today is on the brink of defining preschool experiences as essential for children’s academic success. Indeed, many children’s classroom experience begins as they transition from infant/toddler care to a preschool classroom. This study examined developmentally relevant skill domains among 36-month-olds (effortful control, social engagement, and language abilities) and tested their organization in a latent factor model of skills hypothesized to promote classroom adaptation. Assessments of low-income children interacting with a parent and examiner from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project were utilized (n = 1,814). The data included observations of mother–child interactions during semistructured activities at home and child behavior assessments. Results indicated that the interrelated structure of children’s skills was best defined in a 2-factor, latent variable model: effortful control and social communication. These learning skills were related to but separate from general cognitive ability. Practice or Policy: Home-visiting programs for infants and toddlers are expected to promote children’s school readiness, yet little research has focused on the skills that facilitate children’s transition to the large-group learning environment at age 3. Implications of this model for early prevention efforts and early childhood teacher training to promote children’s readiness for group-based learning are discussed.     

Behavior Concerns Among Low-Income,Ethnically and Linguistically Diverse Children in Child Care: Importance for School Readiness and Kindergarten Achievement

Research Findings: Recent research and teacher reports have highlighted the importance of early behavior skills for children’s school readiness and academic success in elementary school. Significant gaps in school readiness and achievement exist between children in poverty and those more affluent. Low-income children are also more likely to exhibit behavior concerns than their more financially advantaged peers. The current study examined the importance of behavior skills at age 4 for school readiness and academic achievement in kindergarten among an ethnically diverse sample of 1,618 low-income children (63% Latino, 37% Black) in an urban setting. Children’s early behavior concerns at age 4 were significantly associated with children’s school readiness scores and end-of-year kindergarten grades above and beyond the contributions of family and child demographics and children’s early cognitive and language skills. In addition, behavior problems were more strongly related to school readiness and kindergarten performance within English-dominant Latino children as opposed to Spanish-dominant Latino children. Practice or Policy: The findings from the current study provide support for targeting behavior skills, and not just preliteracy and/or number skills, prior to school entry as a strategy to increase the likelihood of low-income diverse children’s school readiness and school success. Behavior interventions are discussed.     

Confirmatory factor analyses of Chinese students' evaluations of university teaching

Chinese University of Hong Kong students (N = 844) selected a “good” and a “poor” teacher, and rated each using a Chinese translation of the Students' Evaluations of Educational Quality (SEEQ) instrument. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models, based on a 3 × 2 design, were constructed to test the invariance of the SEEQ factor structure across 3 discipline groups (a between‐group comparison of ratings by students in arts, social sciences, and education; in business administration; and in engineering, medicine, and science) and across ratings of good and poor teachers (via within‐subjects comparison). The selected model imposed between‐group invariance constraints on factor loadings, factor correlations, and factor variances across the 3 discipline groups and within‐subjects invariance constraints on factor loadings across ratings of good and poor teachers. The results support the use of SEEQ in this Chinese setting, demonstrating the generality of North American research findings and the usefulness of CFA in this research area.     

Validation of a school environment survey among Colombian teachers

The article explores the validity and reliability of an instrument for measuring for the School Environment (SE) among 3610 teachers in Medellín, Colombia during 2011. A multilevel exploratory factorial analysis established through 20 items that the instrument identifies four dimensions of SE on an individual level: communication between school and teachers, between teachers and parents, teacher involvement in school decisions, sense of security (respect-safeness) and academic expectations. At a group level, the same items measure a general dimension of SE. Based upon these analyses, the instrument produced a valid and reliable school environment measure that differentiates among schools.     

Introducing grapheme-phoneme correspondences (GPCs): exploring rate and complexity in phonics instruction for kindergarteners with limited literacy skills

Two experiments explored rates for introducing grapheme-phoneme correspondences (GPCs) and the types of correspondences taught for optimal alphabet and early literacy skills learning. In both studies, children entered with minimal alphabet knowledge and were randomly assigned within classrooms to one of two treatments delivered individually over 5 weeks. In Study 1, children grades K-1 were assigned to instruction in a set of either 10 (Slow rate, n?=?33) or 15 (Fast rate, n?=?32) single- and two-letter GPCs. Study 1 findings indicated that children who learned five added GPCs did not reduce learning of the common set of 10 learned GPCs for any measure (including letter names, sounds, letter sound writing, word reading, and spelling), and learning favored Fast items over Slow for letter sounds, letter sound writing, and word reading (median d?=?0.30). In Study 2, kindergarteners were assigned to instruction in either single letters only (Single, n?=?30) or mixed-size GPCs (Mixed, n?=?31). Instruction included application of GPCs to decoding and spelling. Results showed that kindergarteners in the Mixed condition made significantly greater gains learning the four two-letter GPCs across measures (median d?=?0.86), and no significant differences between groups on measures of the 11 one-letter GPCs common to both conditions. Findings add precision to understanding how rate and order of introducing GPCs influence children’s initial alphabet learning. Further study of empirically validated methods of alphabet instruction may benefit in particular those children most at risk for acquiring this foundational knowledge.

     

Investigating Socioscientific Issues via Scientific Habits of Mind: Development and validation of the Scientific Habits of Mind Survey

In this paper, we describe the Scientific Habits of Mind Survey (SHOMS) developed to explore public, science teachers’, and scientists’ understanding of habits of mind (HoM). The instrument contained 59 items, and captures the seven SHOM identified by Gauld. The SHOM was validated by administration to two cohorts of pre-service science teachers: primary science teachers with little science background or interest (n?=?145), and secondary school science teachers (who also were science graduates) with stronger science knowledge (n?=?145). Face validity was confirmed by the use of a panel of experts and a pilot study employing participants similar in demographics to the intended sample. To confirm convergent and discriminant validity, confirmatory factor analysis and evaluation of the reliability were calculated. Statistical data and other data gathered from interviews suggest that the SHOMS will prove to be a useful tool for educators and researchers who wish to investigate HoM for a variety of participants.     

MEASURING EFFICACY SOURCES: DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF THE SOURCES OF TEACHER EFFICACY QUESTIONNAIRE (STEQ) FOR CHINESE TEACHERS

The aim of the current study is to develop and validate an instrument to measure the four sources of teacher efficacy among Chinese primary school teachers. A 26‐item Sources of Teacher Efficacy Questionnaire (STEQ) was proposed with four subscales: mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological arousal. The results supported the hypothesized four‐factor structure of the STEQ. Scores from all the four factors of the STEQ had strong significant correlations with the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES), which showed the criterion‐related validity of the STEQ. Further, scores of all four sources significantly predicted teacher efficacy scores, among which social persuasion was the strongest predictor. This study contributes to the self‐efficacy literature by providing researchers with an instrument for examining the various facets of teacher efficacy. The findings can inform school principals and teacher educators, enabling them to facilitate a school culture and teaching environment that cultivates a greater sense of teacher efficacy and, in turn, better teaching performance.