Understanding motivational structures that differentially predict engagement and achievement in middle school science

Middle school has been documented as the period in which a drop in students’ science interest and achievement occurs. This trend indicates a lack of motivation for learning science; however, little is known about how different aspects of motivation interact with student engagement and science learning outcomes. This study examines the relationships among motivational factors, engagement, and achievement in middle school science (grades 6–8). Data were obtained from middle school students in the United States (N?=?2094). The theoretical relationships among motivational constructs, including self-efficacy, and three types of goal orientations (mastery, performance approach, and performance avoid) were tested. The results showed that motivation is best modeled as distinct intrinsic and extrinsic factors; lending evidence that external, performance based goal orientations factor separately from self-efficacy and an internal, mastery based goal orientation. Second, a model was tested to examine how engagement mediated the relationships between intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors and science achievement. Engagement mediated the relationship between intrinsic motivation and science achievement, whereas extrinsic motivation had no relationship with engagement and science achievement. Implications for how classroom practice and educational policy emphasize different student motivations, and in turn, can support or hinder students’ science learning are discussed.     

Can teachers motivate students to learn?

Research on motivation has mainly concentrated on the role of goal orientation and self‐evaluation in conducting learning activities. In this paper, we examine the relative importance of teachers’ teaching and their efficacy beliefs to explain variation in student motivation. Questionnaires were used to measure the well‐being, academic self‐efficacy, mastery goal orientation, performance avoidance, intrinsic motivation and school investment of students (n = 3462) and the teaching practices and teachers’ sense of self‐efficacy (n = 194) in primary schools. Results of the multi‐level analyses show that connection to the students’ world and cooperative learning methods had a positive effect on students’ motivation, while process‐oriented instruction by the teacher had a negative effect on motivational behaviour and motivational factors of students. Finally, the results lend credence to the argument that teachers’ sense of self‐efficacy has an impact on both teachers’ teaching and students’ motivation to learn.     

The Effects of Motivational Styles on Group Work and Discussion-based Seminars

The paper reports the effect of motivational styles on group work and discussion-based teaching in an environmental science course. The students' motivational styles were explored by a questionnaire whose items were written to correspond to four motivational patterns: achiever, curious, conscientious and sociable. A total of 180 university students from an Elementary Teaching Department participated in this study. The results showed that achiever students tended to dislike being involved in group work. On the other hand, curious, social and conscientious students tended to prefer working in groups. Discussion-based teaching appeared to be attractive for almost all students, although they have different motivational styles. The implications of the results for teaching and learning are discussed.     

Assessing motivational styles of students in the south-east Asian context of Singapore

High levels of academic achievement in Asian educational systems have generated interest in the study of motivational patterns of students in these contexts. The objectives of this paper are firstly, to provide a review of existing literature on the study of motivational styles amongst students and secondly, to identify the occurrence of different motivational styles amongst students in Singapore,. The method of identifying different motivational styles was adapted from a procedure first developed by Craske (1988). The findings of this study indicate that although the distribution of motivational styles amongst the Singaporean students was consistent with that as obtained by Craske, there was a higher tendency for maladaptive motivation amongst the males than the females. In contrast, Craske found no gender differentiation, though earlier researchers had found that maladaptive motivation was more common among the females.     

Motivation across domains: Do goals and attributions change with subject matter for Grades 4 and 5 students?

This study explored a theory for motivation which included aspects of both attribution theory and goal theory. Motivational variables included beliefs about intelligence (entity or incremental), goal orientation (mastery/learning, performance-approach, performance-avoidance) and avoidant behaviours. Grades 4 and 5 students from a large, metropolitan school district were surveyed regarding these motivational variables across the academic domains of reading and mathematics. The relationships among these motivational variables were explored, as well as differences across domains. A diverse sample allowed differences across ethnic groups and socioeconomic status to be studied. Results indicate that children could have a generalised notion of motivation that becomes differentiated when students are asked to reflect on these variables within specified domains. The existence of few differences across ethnic and socioeconomic groups suggest that instructional style could be a more powerful influence than either of these variables.     

Promotion of students’ mastery goal orientations: does TARGET work?

Achievement goal orientations are important for students’ ongoing motivation. Students with a mastery goal orientation show the most advantageous achievement and motivational patterns. Much research has been conducted to identify classroom structures which promote students’ mastery goal orientation. The TARGET framework is one example of these efforts and provides six instructional dimensions (task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation, time), which should form a classroom structure that fosters a mastery goal orientation. The aim of this study was to examine the entire multi-dimensional TARGET framework and its impact on mastery goal orientation in a longitudinal study with 1680 secondary school students. CFAs confirmed the existence of one latent factor TARGET comprising the six proposed dimensions. This study also provides the first empirical evidence, based on longitudinal data, that TARGET has a positive impact on student mastery goal orientations.     

High School Students' Goal Orientations and Their Relationship to Perceived Parenting Styles

The purpose of this study was to examine relationships among Baumrind's three parenting styles, parent involvement (both parenting variables as perceived by student), and mastery and performance goal orientations of high school students. The sample consisted of 196 students enrolled in two Florida high schools. Many expected relationships appeared in line with the parenting and goal theory literature. Maternal authoritativeness was related to a mastery orientation. Maternal authoritarianism and permissiveness were related to a performance orientation. Differential findings were evident with regard to student ethnicity. Appearance of stronger relationships among maternal parenting styles and student goal orientation may be due to the nontraditional living arrangements reported; a number of students reported not living with their fathers. Parent involvement was positively related to a mastery orientation for all students. Student gender and parental education were not significant factors in this study. Conclusions are tempered by limitations of a relatively small sample.     

Reading motivational differences among groups: Reading disability (RD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), RD + ADHD,and typical comparison

This study assessed the reading motivation of 133 students at individual grade levels (2nd–5th), who were divided in subgroups with and without reading disabilities/difficulties (RD) and with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Major findings were that students in the RD subgroup had lower reading motivation (intrinsic, extrinsic, and self-efficacy) and read less for enjoyment than the nondisability (ND) group; students in the combined group (ADHD + RD) showed these motivational deficits in earlier grade levels. However, students with ADHD did not differ from the ND group in reading motivation, and children with RD (with and without ADHD) were equivalent to ND in social motivation up to the 5th grade. Implications of these findings were (a) social reading is an instructional pathway for both groups of students with RD, (b) assessments of reading motivation, in addition to reading skill, may be important in assessing responses to intervention, and (c) motivational interventions should be implemented early before motivational responses become a motivational style.     

The role of social comparison in students’ perceptions of ability: An enriched view of academic motivation in middle school students

This study addressed notions derived from a model by [Tesser et al., 1984] of self-concept and how it is influenced by social relationships. We were interested in whether the self-evaluation maintenance model (SEM) would allow us to investigate more directly the value component in expectancy–value models of achievement motivation. Using distinctions often made about different motivational orientations, we discovered a three-way interaction between level of mastery orientation (high or low), relevance of math (high or low), and target of rating (self or 7th grade friend) on students’ perception of ability in math. Thus, the SEM model was supported but only for students reporting a low mastery orientation. For them, those who reported math as highly relevant estimated their own ability as significantly higher than their friend’s, whereas those reporting math as less relevant showed no difference in estimates of ability between self or friend. For high mastery oriented students, no differences were found.     

Assessment of learning environment motivational quality from the point of view of secondary and high school learners

There is a growing interest about learning environments enhancing learning motivation. However, two questions need to be answered to improve learning environment motivational quality: how much motivational value do students attribute to each particular component of learning environments? and in what degree is such value mediated by students' motivational orientations? To answer both questions and in an effort to replicate results coming from previous studies, 630 students, 15–17 years old, from three different schools were given two questionnaires. The first included different learning environment characteristics aimed at enhancing learning motivation. Students had to declare how much motivation to learn was arisen in them by these characteristics. The second assessed students' motivational traits and orientations: Learning orientation, Outcome orientation and Avoidance orientation. Mean, correlation and multiple-regression analyses were performed to answer the questions. As in previous studies, results support predictions concerning both questions. Teaching patterns assessed and expected to enhance learning motivation do it. However, the motivational value attached to the different patterns assessed is modulated by students' motivational characteristics. Implications of these results for designing learning environments aimed at enhancing students' motivation and for teachers' motivational training are discussed.     

Family Factors Related to Children's Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivational Orientation and Academic Performance

This study examined 3 familial factors—parental surveillance of homework, parental reactions to grades, and general family style—in relation to children's motivational orientation and academic performance. Family, parent, and child measures were obtained in the home from 93 fifth graders and their parents. Teachers provided a measure of classroom motivational orientation, and grades and achievement scores were obtained from school records. Higher parental surveillance of homework, parental reactions to grades that included negative control, uninvolvement, or extrinsic reward, and over- and undercontrolling family styles were found to be related to an extrinsic motivational orientation and to lower academic performance. On the other hand, parental encouragement in response to grades children received was associated with an intrinsic motivational orientation, and autonomy-supporting family styles were associated with intrinsic motivation and higher academic performance. In addition, socioeconomic level was a significant predictor of motivational orientation and academic performance.     

Cultural perspectives on Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian students' school motivation and engagement

The purpose of the paper was to investigate (a) similarities and differences in cultural perspectives, self-concept, and school motivation between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Australian students; and (b) the relative influences of self-concept, motivation, and cultural perspectives on academic engagement. Data were collected from Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students in Years 3 to 6 from 52 primary schools in metropolitan Sydney (N = 1745). Students completed a questionnaire asking about three cultural perspective factors (Aboriginal perspective, cultural diversity, and cultural identity), school self-concept, two motivation factors (a mastery approach goal and a performance approach goal), and a behavioral outcome (academic engagement). Results indicated that Aboriginal students were higher in all three cultural perspectives, but did not differ much from non-Aboriginal students in school self-concept, motivation, and academic engagement. For both groups cultural diversity, cultural identity, school self-concept, and a mastery approach goal orientation were positive predictors of academic engagement. A performance approach goal orientation was not a significant predictor of engagement but higher SES and being female were positive predictors. The findings suggest that teachers should understand the importance of promoting a positive sense of culture in the classroom to better engage students.     

Stimulating Intrinsic Motivation for Problem Solving Using Goal-Oriented Contexts and Peer Group Composition

One important factor related to ill-structured problem-solving success is intrinsic motivation, that is, students’ willingness to persist in solving the problem. Goal orientation, a motivational variable, explains reasons why students engage in the activity because they want to either learn or perform. This study investigated the relationship between these two types of goal orientations and their effects on motivation and problem solving by varying three instructional contexts designed to promote one of the two orientations. Heterogeneous and homogeneous peer grouping based on self-efficacy was also predicted to affect intrinsic motivation and problem solving. The results indicated that students in the learning-oriented context had significantly higher intrinsic motivation than those in the performance-oriented context. Students in the heterogeneous peer group had higher scores on monitoring and evaluating problem-solving subskills than those in the homogeneous peer groups. Learning-goal orientation and solution development were significantly related when students participated in the learning-oriented, heterogeneous peer grouping treatment group.     

Examining Hong Kong students’ achievement goals and their relations with students’ perceived classroom environment and strategy use

This study examined Hong Kong students’ achievement goals and their relations with students’ perceived classroom environment and strategy use based on the multiple goal perspective of goal orientation theory. A total of 925 Grade 8 students from six secondary schools in Hong Kong voluntarily responded to a questionnaire that measured these three sets of variables. Consistent with previous studies using goal orientation theory, the findings of this study indicated that students’ perceived classroom environment was significantly related to their personal achievement goals and strategy use. While mastery goals were found to be the strongest predictor of strategy use, performance‐approach goals and perceived instrumentality also had positive relations with mastery goals and strategy use. Our findings suggest that mastery goals and performance goals were not contrasting goals as conceptualised in normative goal orientation theory. Students with high motivation for both types of goal were more adaptive in learning than were students who pursued a single type of goal. Moreover, the value of adding perceived instrumentality when studying students’ motivation should be emphasised. The implications of these findings for understanding Hong Kong students’ motivation, and for planning effective teaching instruction to enhance their motivation, are discussed.     

Cognitive-Motivational Influences on the Task-Related Help-Seeking Behavior of Black Children

The present study examined the relation between children's mastery motivation, self-assessment of performance, and task-related help-seeking behavior during task performance. Average-achieving black American children, varying in mastery motivation as measured by subscales of the Harter's Intrinsic-Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom Scale, performed a multitrial verbal task and were given the opportunity to seek help on each trial after making a tentative response and assessing their performance by rating their confidence in the correctness of the response. A response-contingent payoff system was implemented to encourage children to restrict their help seeking to those instances in which they perceived that they could not make a correct response without assistance. As predicted, children's self-assessments of performance, regardless of their accuracy, appeared to influence help seeking more than the actual performance outcomes. Neither children's self-assessments of performance nor their overall rate of help seeking varied with level of measured mastery motivation. However, the type of help sought varied as expected with mastery motivation. Children characterized by high intrinsic orientations toward independent mastery in academic achievement contexts sought indirect help (i.e., hints) more often than they sought direct help (i.e., answers), whereas children characterized by low intrinsic orientations toward independent mastery showed no preference. These differences in motivational orientation influenced requests for help only when children perceived their initial solutions to be incorrect. These findings are discussed in the context of the analyses of help seeking as an instrumental learning and achievement strategy. The implications of the findings for analyses of black children's achievement styles are highlighted.     

Coaching college students in the development of positive learning dispositions: A randomized control trial embedded mixed-methods study

Enhancing college students' learning habits, attitudes, and capacities have been an important research topic in educational psychology. In this study, we designed, implemented, and evaluated a coaching program that integrated mindful agency coaching and motivational interviewing for the development of positive learning dispositions in college students. A randomized control trial embedded mixed-methods design was employed. The quantitative phase with two experimental groups showed that the intervention group (n = 24) showed significant improvement in mindful agency, self-efficacy, learning motivation, and emotional intelligence after the coaching, compared with the control group (n = 30). The qualitative phase with students in the intervention group (n = 15) revealed five themes: Task orientation, motivational management, openness and acceptance, self-awareness and self-regulation, and supporting factors for coaching. Integrated findings demonstrated whether and how coaching could be a promising approach to enhancing college students' various positive dispositions that are essential for them to be mindful, resilient, and self-directed learners.     

The impact of science motivation on cognitive achievement within a 3-lesson unit about renewable energies

Our study analyzed the influence of motivation towards science in relation individual cognitive achievement scores. 232 10th graders of college preparatory school level (‘Gymnasium’) completed a cognitive achievement test three times and a questionnaire quantifying motivation towards science once. A three-lesson module dealt with aspects of the topic renewable energies. The knowledge test was applied one week before (T-0), directly after (T-1) and six weeks after (T-2) participation in the learning module. The questionnaire on science motivation was completed at T-0 in order to receive unaffected data. A test-retest group (acting as control group) of 37 students completed the questionnaires with no intervention. Three motivational groups were selected: highly motivated, intermediate and less motivated. The intervention group showed substantial knowledge gain in short- and in long-term perspectives, almost independently of motivational levels. A positive linear relation between motivation and content knowledge was observable for each test schedule. In particular, intrinsic factors are shown to be responsible for this relationship.We recommend implementing appropriately designed educational settings to promote intrinsic aspects in order to foster performance almost independently of pre-existing knowledge and science motivation We presume pre-existing knowledge as well as learning to be influenced by motivation towards science. Also, pre-existing knowledge may influence individual motivation towards science. Consequently, beyond scientific contents, a focus on motivation of adolescents in science may lead to a synergetic effect for life-long learning.     

Prokrastination bei Studierenden des Lehramts und der Erziehungswissenschaften

A common phenomenon among university students is procrastination, the dysfunctional postponing of tasks. Based on expectancy-value theory, the present study examined the relations between procrastination and some specific motivational characteristics of university students. A total of 881 German university students of teacher education and educational sciences completed a questionnaire. Results showed that procrastination while studying was negatively related to self-concept, study interest, mastery goal orientation and performance-approach goal orientation, while it was positively associated with work avoidance. Moreover, male students reported higher procrastination than female students. Study interest and work avoidance were the strongest predictors of procrastination. Thus, enhancing students’ positive motivational characteristics could reduce procrastination while studying.