Work in college and subsequent wage rates

This is an empirical study of early postenrollment wage determinants of white young men in the 1966 to 1971 period. Data are from the National Longitudinal Survey for young men. The focus is on student labor force status as a determinant of postenrollment wage rates. As such, the results are related to the combined employment and college enrollment goal expressed repeatedly in federal work-study programs from the 1930s to date. Results suggest that work while enrolled may not only support the student, but mitigate transition problems to full-time work after enrollment. The major result, found with OLS multiple regression techniques, is that student job holding significantly and positively increased postenrollment wage rates relative to youth who neither worked nor looked for work as students. This indirect effect implies that the social cost of the college work-study program may be less than the federal outlays if the extra work experience enables a youth to obtain a more productive and higher paying job after enrollment.     

Gender-based wage differentials in a predominantly female profession: observations from nursing

Despite numerous studies examining nursing wages, very little attention has focused on nursing wage differentials. We build on previous research by modeling nursing wages and examining male–female wage differences within the context of the current nursing shortage. Our results show that male nurses do earn a wage premium, largely explained by employment as a nurse anesthetist, job satisfaction, and experience. Whether or not this differential indicates discrimination toward females in the US nursing labor market is unclear. Since males represent a small proportion of the nursing workforce, the time required for males to become prevalent in the nursing labor market and help ease the nursing shortage is unknown. Consequently, one must ask whether the male wage premium is sufficient to attract substantial numbers of men into nursing, and whether wages, in general, are sufficient to attract the requisite numbers of males and females into nursing to address the shortage ‘crisis’.     

Earnings among young and mature Danish university graduates

This paper studies the association between graduation age and earnings among university graduates in Denmark, which is a country with one of the oldest student populations in the world. Exploiting a rich data-set from administrative registers, the current study is able to track labour market career for a longer period of time and to control for more labour market-relevant variables than any previous study of graduation age and earnings. The results show that graduation age has either a slightly positive or an insignificant impact on starting wages within the public sector or a negative impact on starting wages among private sector employees. This applies to both genders, but the differences are stronger among male employees. The analyses of long-term wages reveal a more homogeneous pattern. Mature graduates earn less in all the years investigated. The wage differences are greatest among male graduates employed in private enterprises, and the gap increases throughout their careers.     

Cohort changes in the transition from school to work: Evidence from three NLS surveys

This study examines the changes in the school-to-work transition of young adults in the United States over the latter part of the twentieth century. Their transition is portrayed using data from National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women, Young Men, and Youth 1979. In general, we find that indicators of educational attainment, working while in school and non-school related work increased across cohorts for almost all racial/ethnic and gender groups. This was especially true for young women. Furthermore, various indicators of personal and family backgrounds changed in ways consistent with an improvement across cohorts in the preparation of young men and women for their attainment of schooling and work experience and their success in the labor market. The one exception to this general picture of improvement across cohorts was Hispanic men, who experienced a notable decline in educational attainment and in a variety of personal and family background characteristics. With respect to hourly wage rates, we find that wages over the ages 16 through 27 declined across cohorts. However, the rate of growth of wages with age, particularly over adult ages, increased across cohorts, except Hispanic men. Our findings highlight the need for accounting for the endogeneity and selectivity of early skill acquisition.     

马克思工资理论与社会主义工资改革

工资理论是马克思政治经济学发展史上一个伟大贡献。马克思通过对资产阶级经济学的研究和批判,继承了古典经济学派工资学说中的科学成分,创立了自己的工资理论,区分了劳动力和劳动两个范畴,不仅揭示出剩余价值的真正源泉,也揭示出资本主义工资的实质,还展现了对无产阶级生存境况的深切关注。社会主义工资反映了国家、企业和劳动者根本利益一致基础上的社会关系,因此,社会主义工资改革应全面体现人的价值,要有助于人的发展。     

Gender gap in returns to schooling in Palestine

This study provides estimates of the private returns to schooling in Palestine utilizing eight quarterly labor force surveys for 1999 and 2001. This period was chosen to investigate the differential impact of the Israeli closure policy on Palestinian male and female workers. Although gross enrollment ratios for males and females reveal little to no difference in the primary, middle and tertiary levels of schooling, returns to schooling are significantly different. On average, females earned 14–15% less than males in 1999. The gender gap is narrowed during 2001 due to rising male unemployment in the Palestinian areas. Performing the regression for males and females separately, it is found that returns to schooling are larger for women (at least at the margin). The gap in returns to schooling was reduced in 2001; however, female returns to schooling as estimated by OLS suffer from selectivity bias which worsened during 2001. The work in Israel premium increased for women and decreased for men. Finally, Palestinian public sector employment parallels periods of restricted access to Israeli labor markets; its average wages are lower and years of schooling are higher relative to private sector employment.     

禀赋异质的同质劳动供给与工资决定

根据中国农村"准自耕农"社会结构特点,基于非劳动禀赋的异质性,构建了一条向上倾斜的同质劳动供给曲线,以此解释中国同质非熟练劳动在向城市流动中实际工资缓慢上涨的现象。中国农村不同地区及同一地区的不同农户,单位劳动可资利用的非劳动禀赋存在广泛差异。即使劳动是同质的,单位劳动生产力及劳动收入也有很大差别。随着劳动需求在城市化、工业化进程中不断增加,农村劳动将沿着务农收入或保留工资由低到高的顺序向城市流动,劳动供给价格及务工均衡工资率不断上升。而且,随着拥有禀赋更少的劳动离开农村,继续务农的单位农村劳动拥有的禀赋及劳动收入也会相应增加。最终,同质劳动收入将在务工和务农、不同农户间相等时达到均衡,实现劳动的优化配置,劳动收入差别只来自劳动质量差别。     

Earnings expectation and graduate employment: Evidence from recent Chinese college graduates

Chinese college graduates have faced increasing labor market competition since the expansion of tertiary education. Given rigid market demand, graduates with realistic earnings expectations may experience a more efficient job search. Using the 2008 MYCOS College Graduate Employment Survey, this study finds that a 1 000 yuan reduction in a graduate’s reservation wage can significantly increase the probability of finding a job by 66% and increase the likelihood of being employed six months after graduation by 92%. In addition, the gap between the reservation wage and the market wage has a positive impact. By slightly adjusting earnings expectations, college graduates can significantly improve job search efficiency. Market wages should be seen as reference points when adjusting income expectations.     

论资本自由流动下的劳动力市场结构对收入集中的影响

在资本自由流动和劳动力市场刚性的假设前提下,建立一个开放经济下不同的劳动力市场结构的一般动态均衡模型,对集体议价工资率和完全竞争性工资率进行比较分析,说明全球资本整合对工资和福利的影响主要依赖于相关国家的劳动力市场结构。在完全资本市场条件下,尽管劳动力市场结构不同,资本和收入的集中总是存在。然而,不同的劳动力市场结构却成为工资收入趋同的阻碍因素,表现为较低的工资率和国际资本流入。     

Child labor in Bombay

Of the world's largest child labor force in India, Bombay has over 30,000 working children, most of them migrants. In a prospective study of 73 working children from a part of Dharavi, the biggest slum in Asia, 68% were working as hotel boys; 22% had started working before their 10th birthday, a large number doing so to increase the family income, but earning less than Rs. 100 ($11) per month. Forty percent worked more than 12 hours a day and only 16% continued schooling. Two-thirds depended entirely on their employers for food which was adequate and no child in the study was malnourished. Overall incidence of anemia and vitamin deficiency was 10% each. Only 7% had ailments related to their occupation. Because this was a cross-sectional study no conclusions can be drawn regarding long term and residual effects. Preventing children from working is likely to make worse their own as well as their families' problems unless substitute sources of income or welfare are available. Legal protection and other services near their working places are essential for those who have to work.     

外包与行业工资差距——基于中国制造业数据的经验分析

近年来,中国在承接发达国家外包的同时,又大量进口发达国家产品作为中间投入,目前外包已经成为我国加速融入全球分工体系的重要媒介。但是,相比发达国家,我们对外包冲击劳动力市场的认识还很模糊,国外发展外包过程中劳动力市场的对应性调整会否也在中国这样一个劳动力禀赋丰裕的国家再次出现尚无定论。本文以中国发包方的视角,整体和分组检验了材料外包、服务外包和狭义材料外包对中国28个制造业行业内部工资差距的影响。结果表明,材料外包和狭义材料外包显著提升了我国制造业熟练劳动力的工资份额,而服务外包的影响不显著。随着制造业对进口中间投入品,特别是在技术密集型产品生产行业中来自本行业的中间投入品的需求迅速增加,熟练劳动力的需求和工资进一步上升。在初级产品生产行业中,国内R&D投资的增加扩大了相对工资差距,而技术进步的作用不显著;在劳动和资源密集型产品生产行业以及技术密集型产品生产行业中,资本节约型技术进步能够缩小相对工资差距,而进口贸易的R&D溢出对行业工资差距的扩大有显著的促进作用。     

Educational returns beyond the mean: Differences along wage distributions of men and women in India's formal labor market

Unlike previous studies on educational returns in developing countries, this paper examines the distributional impacts of education on wages using a recently developed econometric approach – unconditional quantile regressions. The results yield unconditional impacts of education at different points of the wage distribution and, therefore, are more informative from a policy perspective than both traditional regression and quantile regression methods commonly used for estimating educational returns. We use a nationally representative dataset on labor markets in India, collected in 2005–2006. The results reveal significant heterogeneity in education's effects along the wage distribution and striking differences in these patterns by gender: the effect of primary education is found to be significantly higher for women than men in the middle of the wage distribution; while the effect of post primary education exhibits a distinct pattern whereby women get significantly higher rewards than men above the median and significantly lower rewards than men below the median. These findings have direct implications for the targeting of education policies that seek to reduce gender wage inequality.     

大学生勤工助学活动遭受侵权情况调查及对策

勤工助学的大学生遭受侵权的情况严峻:大部分低于最低工资标准,且时被拖欠;超时工作严重;扣押现金或证件;不良中介诈骗;工伤事故的风险.造成大学生屡遭侵权背后的无奈原因是:法律保障的空白;缺乏有效的监管、维权机制;勤工助学组织不完善;供过于求,竞争激烈;学生社会阅历浅,法律意识薄弱,缺乏维权意识.防止大学生勤工俭学活动遭侵权的对策是健全保障机制:(1)部分勤工助学活动应纳入劳动法律规范的调整对象.(2)应出台专门的《勤工助学法》,规定劳动部门是勤工助学的政府管理机构,负责勤工助学市场的管理;参照《劳动法》,规定勤工助学的工作时间及勤工助学的最低工资标准,规定工作种类和劳动强度限制等合法权益;明确各高校勤工助学中心的职责和要求,创建畅通的维权渠道.(3)为推动勤工助学活动的健康发展,可制定减免雇用大学生的企业、个体户的相关所得税的规定,以鼓励商家聘请大学生的积极性.(4)加强大学生安全、法律知识教育,让大学生用法律武器维护自已的合法权益. 保障机制:(1)部分勤工助学活动应纳入劳动法律规范的调整对象.(2)应出台专门的《勤工助学法》,规定劳动部门是勤工助学的政府管理机构,负责勤工助学市场的管理;参照《劳动法》,规定 工助学的工作时间及勤工助学的最低工资标准,规定工作种类和劳动强度限制等合法权益;明确各高校勤工助学中心的职责和要求,创建畅通的维权渠道.(3)为推动勤工助学活动的健康发展,可制定减免雇用大学生的企业、个体户的相关所得税的规定,以鼓励商家聘请大学生的积极性.(4)加强大学生安全、法律知识教育,让大学生用法律武器维护自已的合法权益. 保障机制:(1)部分勤工助学活动应纳入劳动法律规范的调整对象.(2)应出台专门的《勤工助学法》,规定劳动部门是勤工助学的政府管理机构,负责勤工助学市场的管理;参照《劳动法》,规定 工助学的工作时间及勤工助学的最低工资标准,规定工作种类和劳动强度     

外商直接投资的工资溢出效应分析——基于我国工业行业数据的实证研究

随着经济全球化的发展,各国经济相互依赖程度日益增强。外商直接投资给东道国带来的外部效应,受到越来越多的关注。本文在对国内外学者的研究成果进行梳理的基础上,采用我国工业37个行业2004-2011年的面板数据,对外商直接投资的工资溢出效应进行检验。实证结果显示,外商直接投资的流入不仅促进我国工业行业总体工资水平上升,而且对国有企业的工资水平产生显著的正向溢出。这种溢出效应通过劳动力市场竞争和引致性技术进步两个渠道产生作用。但国内资本与劳动生产率仍然是工资上升的主导推动力。     

Drug use,the transition from school to work and occupational achievement in the United States

To determine the effects of drug use on entry into the labor force and subsequent socioeconomic achievement, we estimated duration models of the time elapsed since first leaving school to the first fulltime civilian job and jobs held at ages 24–25 and 28–29. The duration models show inconsistent drug effects: women who use illicit drugs other than marijuana delay entry into the labor force while men who use alcohol daily experience a somewhat more rapid entry. Blacks and those with a lower level of educational attainment enter the labor force more slowly than non-blacks and those with higher educational levels. The more important determinants of occupational outcomes at entry and later points in the work career are the human capital variables, i.e. educational attainment and experience. Duration of time since leaving school to first job has a statistically significant and negative impact on earnings, which increases over time for men but not for women. Being black is consistently associated with higher earnings among women. Holding constant other determinants of socioeconomic achievement, such as family background factors, marital status, race, and participation in different activities and roles during high school, effects of drug use among men and women and across earnings and prestige of the job are weak and inconsistent. The only statistically significant effect is the positive impact of marijuana use on males’ earnings at age 29. The findings lead us to conclude that drug use has only minor impact on occupational achievement in early adulthood.     

Do returns to education depend on how and whom you ask?

Returns to education remain an important parameter of interest in economic analysis. A large literature estimates these returns, often carefully addressing issues such as selection into wage employment and endogeneity in terms of completed schooling. There has been much less exploration of whether the estimates of Mincerian returns depend on how information about wage work is collected. Relying on a survey experiment in Tanzania, this paper finds that estimates of the returns to education vary by questionnaire design, but not by whether the information on employment and wages is self-reported or collected by a proxy respondent. The differences derived from questionnaire type are substantial, varying from higher returns of 5 percentage points among the most well educated men to 16 percentage points among the least well educated women. These differences are at magnitudes similar to the bias in ordinary least squares estimation, which receives considerable attention in the literature. The findings demonstrate that survey design matters in the estimation of returns to schooling and that care is needed in comparing across contexts and over time, particularly if the data are generated through different surveys.     

社会福利对工资率、市场工作时间以及收入的影响——一个完全依据经验的研究

众多的当代的依据经验的研究已经查明了社会福利及社会福利制度对工资率、工作者收入和市场工作时间的影响,以及它们之间的联系。无论如何,这些研究通常集中在北美经济区、大不列颠联合王国（英国）和澳大利亚地区。评估和估量社会福利对工资率、工作时间和收入的影响,这些研究结果在其性质特点、意义和关系上给出了多样化的证据。研究调查的目的是提供一个详尽的分析和相互关联的说明,以及社会福利对劳动市场经济的影响,尤其是在找出相关联系是否存在的目标下对这些联系是否对一个国家或地区的经济是否有利做出一个有利的结论。     

The Effects of Work Intensity on Adolescent Mental Health, Achievement, and Behavioral Adjustment: New Evidence from a Prospective Study

This article examines the effects of work intensity on adolescent mental health, academic achievement, and behavioral adjustment. Questionnaire data were collected yearly from an initial panel of 1,000 randomly selected ninth graders (14-15 years old). Consistent with other studies, students who worked at higher intensity engaged in more alcohol use. The methodological strengths of this research (a representative panel studied prospectively over a 4-year period with minimal attrition and an analysis incorporating key control and lagged variables) provide strong evidence that adolescent work fosters alcohol use. The contention that work of high intensity has deleterious effects on mental health, academic achievement, and 2 other indicators of behavioral adjustment did not withstand our stringent tests. However, high school seniors who worked at moderate intensity (1-20 hours per week) had higher grades than both nonworkers and students who worked more hours per week.     

Work-based antipoverty programs for parents can enhance the school performance and social behavior of children

We assess the impact of the New Hope Project, an antipoverty program tested in a random assignment experimental design, on family functioning and developmental outcomes for preschool- and school-aged children (N = 913). New Hope offered wage supplements sufficient to raise family income above the poverty threshold and subsidies for child care and health insurance to adults who worked full-time. New Hope had strong positive effects on boys' academic achievement, classroom behavior skills, positive social behavior, and problem behaviors, as reported by teachers, and on boys' own expectations for advanced education and occupational aspirations. There were not corresponding program effects for girls. The child outcomes may have resulted from a combination of the following: Children in New Hope families spent more time in formal child care programs and other structured activities away from home than did children in control families. New Hope parents were employed more, had more material resources, reported more social support, and expressed less stress and more optimism about achieving their goals than did parents in the control sample. The results suggest that an anti-poverty program that provides support for combining work and family responsibilities can have beneficial effects on the development of school-age children.