Composition of Practice: Influence on the Retention of Motor Skills

Abstract

The purpose of these experiments was to investigate further the variable practice effect found by Shea and Kohl (1990). Experiment 1 was an initial attempt to determine the locus of the retention benefits demonstrated by subjects provided variable practice experiences. All groups received 20 acquisition blocks consisting of five test trials per block at a target of 150 N. The interval between test trials was either unfilled or filled, with additional trials consisting of the same target force, variable target forces, or practice on an unrelated motor task. The results indicated retention was not incremented (relative to an unfilled interval) by requiring subjects to perform an unrelated motor task in the intertest–trial interval. However, when the intertest–trial interval was filled with practice on related motor tasks, retention was significantly improved. Experiment 2 assessed the impact of increasing the number of related motor tasks interpolated between test trials. The results indicated filling the intertest–trial interval with one motor task resulted in large retention benefits relative to an unfilled interval. Further increases in the number of related motor tasks (3) interpolated between test trials resulted in only modest increments to retention. The results were consistent with the elaboration perspective proposed by Shea and Zimny (1983). The elaboration perspective proposes that the simultaneous presence of related items in working memory facilitates interitem elaborative and distinctive processing that ultimately results in retention benefits.     

“Three Specially Selected Athletes” and a Recapitulation of the Pennsylvania Walking Purchase of 1737

Abstract

The generality of the variability in practice prediction, arising from Schmidt's schema theory (1975) of motor learning was tested on young children. More specifically, the structure of the variability session and its subsequent influence on transfer performance to a novel variation of the task was examined. Children tossed a weighted bean bag to a fixed target location. Three groups experienced variability in practice with four bean bags of varying weights (3, 4, 5, and 6 oz.); however, the trial-by-trial presentation of each weight was different for each group. One group received a random presentation of each weight from trial to trial while another experienced random presentations of a weight for blocks of three trials. The third variability group received blocked practice with six trials per block for each weight. All variability groups experienced the same amount of practice at each weight. A constant practice group experienced only a single weight. Following 24 practice trials, all subjects transferred outside the range of previous experience, receiving three trials with one of two possible test weights (2 oz. or 7 oz.). The results indicated that the variability group practicing with blocks of three trials at each variation led to superior performance at transfer to novel variations of the task. Overall, the experiment suggested that transfer performance for children is affected by the appropriate structure of variable practice which formulates the schemata for movement production.     

Effect of Warm-Up and Recovery Techniques on Repeated Running Endurance

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an absence of a warm-up, a warm-up, and a warm-up with leg-elevation recovery techniques on repeated performances of three all-out trials in the 300-yd dash. The subjects were 15 male varsity high school runners who ran a total of nine 300-yd dashes consisting of three trials of each treatment with a 20-min rest period between trials on three different testing days. Approximately two months later the same pattern of nine 300-yd dashes was administered a second time. A randomized blocks factorial design (2 × 3 × 3) was used, followed by tests for simple main effects and Tukey's HSD test. Statistically significant differences at the .05 level were found between the overall means of the two administrations, among the means between the three methods, and among the means between the three trials. A significant interaction among methods and trials was also found. Tests for simple effects coupled with Tukey's HSD test revealed that by the time trial 3 comes about, the warm-up with recovery techniques demonstrated significant superiority of performance over no warm-up.     

Reliability of the Heart Rate Response to Submaximal Upper and Lower Body Exercise

Abstract

This investigation was conducted to compare the influence of high and low perceived competence (PC) and various causal dimension orientations on expectations, persistence, and performance while perceiving failure on a motor task. Based on a response to a PC scale, 84 junior high school students were selected to participate in this study. Separately, 42 low and 42 high PC subjects were oriented to perceive their performance on a stabilometer balancing task as due to: (a) internal, controllable, unstable factors (ICU); (b) internal, uncontrollable, stable factors (IUS); or (c) nothing in particular (NDO). Subjects then received fictitious negative feedback over 15 trials. Results revealed that persistence, expectations, and performance dependent measures were significant for PC and Causal Dimension groups. More specifically, the High PC group persisted longer, had higher expectations, and performed significantly better than the Low PC group. Furthermore, the subjects presented ICU orientations persisted for a longer amount of time, revealed higher expectations over trials, and performed significantly better over trials than the subjects in the IUS and NDO groups. These findings suggest that perceived competence and causal dimensional orientations influence children's expectations, persistence, and performance when perceiving failure on a motor task.     

On Publishable Research Articles

To assess the role of qualitative knowledge of results (KR) in children's motor learning, four-year-old subjects performed a linear positioning task. Children were divided into three groups, each varying on KR precision. A significant reduction in variable error (p < .05) over trials seemed to indicate that children can utilize KR to become more consistent in learning. No significant differences were found among the three KR groups; however, the most precise KR condition tended to show fewer errors than the least precise KR condition. Some recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Relationship of Trait Anxiety,Peer Presence,Task Difficulty,and Skill Acquisition of Sixth-Grade Boys

Abstract

The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC) trait anxiety questionnaire was administered to all sixth-grade boys at one school (N = 181). Based on results of the questionnaire, 40 high-anxious and 40 low-anxious subjects were identified for participation in the study. Stratified random assignments of these subjects in a counterbalanced manner resulted in the creation of eight experimental groups. The effects of an audience and task difficulty on learning and performance were considered in the experimental design. Two social conditions—learning in the presence of a single spectator or alone—and two conditions of task difficulty on the pursuit rotor—hard and easy—were employed. Each subject was tested on one day, under one condition of task difficulty, and under one social condition. Data were treated with a three-factor multivariate analysis of variance. Dependent variables were three STAIC anxiety scale scores used to evaluate within-task feelings of anxiety and three mean performance scores for each of three blocks of pursuit rotor trials. The results of the analyses indicated that significant main effects due to social situation were not apparent until the last block of trials, when subjects in the spectator condition did better. State anxiety scores for those who performed alone were significantly higher than for those who performed with a spectator present over all blocks of trials.

Although low-anxious subjects' overall mean performance scores were higher than high-anxious subjects' on the hard task, they were not significantly different from each other until the last block of trials. The overall mean performance scores for both groups for the easy task proved significantly higher for the low-anxious group. Though the results partially support the hypothesis that a spectator increases the learner's drive and facilitates performance, the majority of the results favor the theoretical hypotheses that a spectator reduces drive and serves to console or reassure the learner.     

Time series analysis of knowledge of results effects during motor skill acquisition

Time series analysis was used to investigate the hypothesis that during acquisition of a motor skill, knowledge of results (KR) information is used to generate a stable internal referent about which response errors are randomly distributed. Sixteen subjects completed 50 acquisition trials of each of three movements whose spatial-temporal characteristics differed. Acquisition trials were either blocked, with each movement being presented in series, or randomized, with the presentation of movements occurring in random order. Analysis of movement time data indicated the contextual interference effect reported in previous studies was replicated in the present experiment. Time series analysis of the acquisition trial data revealed the majority of individual subject response patterns during blocked trials were best described by a model with a temporarily stationary, internal reference of the criterion and systematic, trial-to-trial variation of response errors. During random trial conditions, response patterns were usually best described by a "White-noise" model. This model predicts a permanently stationary, internal reference associated with randomly distributed response errors that are unaffected by KR information. These results are not consistent with previous work using time series analysis to describe motor behavior (Spray & Newell, 1986).     

The Influence of Experimental Design on the Detection of Performance Differences

We demonstrate the effect of sample and trial size on statistical outcomes for single-subject analyses (SSA) and group analyses (GA) for a frequently studied performance activity and common intervention. Fifty strides of walking data collected in two blocks of 25 trials for two shoe conditions were analyzed for samples of five, eight, 10, and 12 subjects and five, 10, 25, and 50 trials. SSA revealed a greater number of differences (p < .05) than GA for all sample and trial sizes. Increasing sample size resulted in consistent increases in the number of differences for GA; differences for SSA were independent of sample size. Increasing trial size from five to 50 resulted in increased differences for SSA; GA were independent of trial size. Detecting significant differences in group designs is more dependent on the number of subjects, while SSA are more dependent on the number of trials.     

Composition of practice: influence on the retention of motor skills

The purpose of these experiments was to investigate further the variable practice effect found by Shea and Kohl (1990). Experiment 1 was an initial attempt to determine the locus of the retention benefits demonstrated by subjects provided variable practice experiences. All groups received 20 acquisition blocks consisting of five test trials per block at a target of 150 N. The interval between test trials was either unfilled or filled, with additional trials consisting of the same target force, variable target forces, or practice on an unrelated motor task. The results indicated retention was not incremented (relative to an unfilled interval) by requiring subjects to perform an unrelated motor task in the intertest-trial interval. However, when the interest-trial interval was filled with practice on related motor tasks, retention was significantly improved. Experiment 2 assessed the impact of increasing the number of related motor tasks interpolated between test trials. The results indicated filling the intertest-trial interval with one motor task resulted in large retention benefits relative to an unfilled interval. Further increases in the number of related motor tasks (3) interpolated between test trials resulted in only modest increments to retention. The results were consistent with the elaboration perspective proposed by Shea and Zimny (1983). The elaboration perspective proposes that the simultaneous presence of related items in working memory facilitates interitem elaborative and distinctive processing that ultimately results in retention benefits.     

The Post Knowledge of Results Interval: Effects of Interpolated Activity on Cognitive Information Processing

Abstract

The present study investigated the effects of interpolated activity on the cognitive information processing operations occurring during the post knowledge of results (KR) interval. Eighty right-handed subjects were randomly assigned to four post-KR interval activity groups and required to complete the McCloy blocks test of multiple response to a criterion of three consecutive errorless trials in less than 35 sec each. The four post-KR intervals included: (1) interfering verbal cognitive activity, (2) attention-demanding verbal activity, (3) attention-demanding motor activity, or (4) rest. Orthogonal planned comparisons indicated that the post-KR interval activity groups differed from the rest group on the acquisition of the criterion task. Comparisons of verbal versus motor, and of interfering verbal cognitive versus attention-demanding verbal activities revealed no significant findings. Additional findings indicated no significant relationship between criterion and interpolated activity performance. Discussion centered on the role of KR in hypothesis selection and evaluation during the post-KR interval, and on the debilitating effects of interpolated activity on this process.     

A Prelongitudinal Test of Motor Stage Theory

Abstract

A test of motor stage theory was conducted to screen cross-sectionally for the existence of “horizontal structure” among motor sequences within four movement components of overarm throwing and overarm striking for force. A total of 58 male subjects were filmed performing five trials of each task. Comparisons were made between movement component sequence levels as assessed by Roberton's Component Category Checklist for the Overarm Throw and Langendorfer's Component Category Checklist for Overarm Striking. Results indicated that longitudinal study of sequences within the components of trunk, humerus, forearm-racquet actions was warranted and that intertask comparisons of motor sequences were best represented by combinations of stage models proposed by Wohlwill (1973). The observed movement commonalities in the present data were consistent with constructs in both Piagetian developmental stage theory and Schmidt's schema theory in motor control and learning.     

Relationship between Motor Performance and Arousal

Abstract

Forty male subjects were tested on a motor learning task called a stabilometer. Skin conductance was taken prior to the introduction of the task and immediately after each of the learning trials. Subjects were then dichotomized on the basis of initial conductance, final conductance, total change in conductance, conductance after trial one, and changes in conductance from rest to trial one. There was no difference in performance between groups when subjects were divided on the basis of initial conductance, but for all other measures performance was significantly better for the group with higher conductance. These results lend support to the concept of an arousal continuum as proposed by Duffy and Malmo.     

Distribution of Practice in Motor Skill Acquisition: Different Effects for Discrete and Continuous Tasks

Abstract

Research on the benefits of distributed practice for the acquisition and retention of motor skills has a long history. The majority of this research has involved skill acquisition of continuous tasks. However, there is some evidence to suggest that distribution of practice effects are quite different for discrete tasks than for continuous tasks. In the present study, we used a single task, formed discrete and continuous versions of the task, and examined how acquisition and retention were affected by the length of inter-trial interval. The basic task was a movement timing task that involved either one timing estimate per trial (the “discrete” version) or twenty successive estimates per trial (the “continuous” version). Separate groups of subjects learned one version of the task under either distributed (25 s inter-trial intervals) or massed (0.5 s inter-trial intervals) practice conditions. Both massed and distributed retention trials were performed on the same version of the task according to a double transfer design. The results confirmed the apparent disparity: Acquisition and retention were facilitated by distributed practice on the continuous task, but by massed practice on the discrete task. These results were discussed in terms of the role of the inter-trial interval in discrete and continuous tasks.     

Influence of perceived competence and causal dimension orientation on expectations, persistence, and performance during perceived failure

This investigation was conducted to compare the influence of high and low perceived competence (PC) and various causal dimension orientations on expectations, persistence, and performance while perceiving failure on a motor task. Based on a response to a PC scale, 84 junior high school students were selected to participate in this study. Separately, 42 low and 42 high PC subjects were oriented to perceive their performance on a stabilometer balancing task as due to: (a) internal, controllable, unstable factors (ICU); (b) internal, uncontrollable, stable factors (IUS); or (c) nothing in particular (NDO). Subjects then received fictitious negative feedback over 15 trials. Results revealed that persistence, expectations, and performance dependent measures were significant for PC and Causal Dimension groups. More specifically, the High PC group persisted longer, had higher expectations, and performed significantly better than the Low PC group. Furthermore, the subjects presented ICU orientations persisted for a longer amount of time, revealed higher expectations over trials, and performed significantly better over trials than the subjects in the IUS and NDO groups. These findings suggest that perceived competence and causal dimensional orientations influence children's expectations, persistence, and performance when perceiving failure on a motor task.     

Distribution of practice in motor skill acquisition: different effects for discrete and continuous tasks

Research on the benefits of distributed practice for the acquisition and retention of motor skills has a long history. The majority of this research has involved skill acquisition of continuous tasks. However, there is some evidence to suggest that distribution of practice effects are quite different for discrete tasks than for continuous tasks. In the present study, we used a single task, formed discrete and continuous versions of the task, and examined how acquisition and retention were affected by the length of inter-trial interval. The basic task was a movement timing task that involved either one timing estimate per trial (the "discrete" version) or twenty successive estimates per trial (the "continuous" version). Separate groups of subjects learned one version of the task under either distributed (25 s inter-trial intervals) or massed (0.5 s inter-trial intervals) practice conditions. Both massed and distributed retention trials were performed on the same version of the task according to a double transfer design. The results confirmed the apparent disparity: Acquisition and retention were facilitated by distributed practice on the continuous task, but by massed practice on the discrete task. These results were discussed in terms of the role of the inter-trial interval in discrete and continuous tasks.     

Performance and Learning in a Discrete Motor Task under Massed Vs. Distributed Practice

Abstract

Three hundred male subjects, assigned in systematic rotation to five experimental groups (N = 60 in each) which differed in amount of distribution of practice, were tested on a discrete-trial motor learning task, the peg turn. All subjects were given 120 practice trials (60 trials a day), on two days separated by a 48-hour rest. Even though the peg turn task is inherently distributed, reminiscence did occur when the massing was made as large as practically possible. The amount of reminiscence depended upon the stage of practice. Warm-up decrement occurred in the peg turn under both massed and distributed practice conditions; the longer the rest, the greater the amount. Performance of the task under nonrhythmical conditions reduced the development of “set” during practice and thus decreased the amount of warm-up decrement after rest. Increased amounts of massing did have a deleterious effect on performance, but did not reduce the amount learned.     

Precision Knowledge of Results and Motor Performance: Relationship to Age

In motor skill performance and retention the complexity of knowledge of results should interact with the child's processing rate. This rate has been demonstrated to increase with age. Two experiments were designed to assess this hypothesis. In Experiment 1, 30 7-year-old and 30 10-year-old boys were randomly assigned within age level to three knowledge of results (KR) conditions: no KR, general KR, and precise KR. Performance was assessed on a vertical positioning task at two angles, 60° and 100°, for 10 performance trials. The preciseness of KR interacted with age and the degree of the angle, indicating that at the more difficult angle (60°) preciseness may have been detrimental to the performance of the 7-year-olds but beneficial to the 10-year-olds. At the easier angle (100°), precise KR improved performance for both age groups. In Experiment 2, 27 second-grade and 27 fourth-grade children were randomly assigned within age groups to the same three levels of KR preciseness. A horizontal curvilinear positioning task was used as the motor task and subjects were given 40 acquisition and 19 KR withdrawal trials. Results suggested that while KR was better than no KR during learning, the level of KR preciseness was of minor importance. However, the preciseness of KR during acquisition was of considerable value after KR was withdrawn (retention phase). The older children were able to use more precise KR to form a perceptual trace more resistant to forgetting, while the younger children were unable to use the additional information contained in precise KR.     

Causal Attributions following Success and Failure at an Achievement Motor Task

Abstract

Past research has shown that success is predominantly attributed to internal factors and failure attributed to external factors. The purpose of the present experiment was to determine whether this attributional pattern was also found when subjects were performing a motor task. The degree of ego involvement in the task (evaluation) and the effect of prior practice (novelty) were also investigated in order to determine the extent to which these variables affect subjects' self-attributions. Thus, the effects of ego involvement and past experience following success and failure on causal attributions were investigated in a 2 × 2 × 2 (evaluation × novelty × outcome) factorial design with 80 college undergraduates. The task was a motor maze. Consistent with past research, subjects showed a relative tendency toward internal attributions over external attributions and a tendency toward stable attributions over unstable attributions. Moreover, success increased the relative bias toward internal attributions. However, evaluation apprehension and experience with the motor task did not interact with outcome to affect internal and external attributions.     

Reaction Time and Anticipation Time: Effects of Development

Abstract

The developmental nature of reaction time (RT) and anticipation timing (AT) performance, as well as the relationship between them, was investigated using 15 male and 15 female subjects at each of five age levels—7, 9, 11, 13, and 20 yrs. Each subject was given 40 trials for both RT and AT performance with task order counterbalanced. Results indicated that as age increased RT decreased, with males having more rapid RT than females. The two younger age groups differed from the three older groups on AT performance. RT was significantly correlated with AT (|CE| measure) for the 7, 9, and 11 yr old males but not in any other age by gender condition. Apparently neither young males nor young females have a good motor plan in memory to control AT performance. However, the more rapid RT (and thus better response initiation) of the males allows better AT performance at the younger ages. Beginning about 10–11 yrs of age, better motor plans are developed in children's memory system, leading to less reliance on rapid RT for good AT performance, and thus the correlation between RT and AT performance is not present.     

Audience Size and Trait Anxiety Effects Upon State Anxiety and Motor Performance

This study was designed to investigate how a personal disposition factor (trait anxiety) and a situational factor (number of observers) affect state anxiety and motor performance. Thirty high and 30 low trait-anxious (Spielberger's STAI) female subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment conditions: alone, two evaluative observers, five or six evaluative observers. Subjects performed 30 massed 10-sec trials on the pursuit rotor task under their assigned treatment conditions and then completed the STAI state anxiety scale. Trait anxiety significantly affected both state anxiety and pursuit rotor performance but no audience main effects or interaction effects were statistically significant. The results were interpreted as supporting some predictions from Spielberger's trait-state anxiety theory while contradicting others.