Treadmill Adaptation and Verification of Self-Selected Walking Speed

Abstract

Eighty-two male college students were divided into three equal-size groups for the purpose of testing the transfer effects between motor skills judged similar in perceptual components but different in motor components.

Criterion measures of gross movement ability and static balance were analyzed and practice tasks similar to these criterion measures in perceptual components but different in motor components were developed. All subjects were pretested on the criterion measures, after which groups 1 and 2 practiced 3 min. per day for 28 days on the practice tasks while group 3 performed unrelated isometric exercises. On the post-test, the experimental groups were found to be significantly superior to the control group on gross movement accuracy and static balance. It was implied that the transfer resulted from the similarity in perceptual components of the two motor skills, and that perceptual abilities were subject to improvement through practice.     

Self-Controlled Practice Enhances Motor Learning in Introverts and Extroverts

Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of self-controlled feedback on the learning of a sequential-timing motor task in introverts and extroverts. Method: Fifty-six university students were selected by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. They practiced a motor task consisting of pressing computer keyboard keys in a specific spatial and temporal pattern. The experiment consisted of practice, retention, and transfer phases. The participants were distributed into 4 groups, formed by the combination of personality trait (extraversion/introversion) and type of feedback frequency (self-controlled/yoked). Results: The results showed superior learning for the groups that practiced in a self-controlled schedule, in relation to groups who practiced in an externally controlled schedule, F(1, 52) = 4.13, p < .05, η² = .07, regardless of personality trait. Conclusion: We conclude that self-controlled practice enhances motor learning in introverts and extroverts.     

Motor Skill and Behavior Adjustment: An Exploratory Study

Abstract

This study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of a supplementary physical education program in improving selected motor skills and behavior adjustment of primary school children who were poor in motor skills and deficient in behavior adjustment. Tests were administered to members of two experimental groups (instruction and non-instruction) and two control groups (deviant and normal) at various times during a one-year period. Improvement in motor performance demonstrated by each of the two experimental groups was significantly greater than such improvement made by each of the control groups. The level of motor performance attained by each of the experimental groups did not significantly differ from the level of motor performance exhibited by normal primary school children. Changes in behavior adjustment among the participants were not statistically significant.     

Psychological Mood Profiles of Sighted and Unsighted Beep Baseball Players

Purpose: Decline of motor performance in older individuals affects their quality of life. Understanding the contribution of sport-related training in advanced ages might help to attenuate motor performance decay as one gets older. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the extent to which long-lasting training in running or sport-specific skills during old age preserves motor performance in different motor tasks. Method: Older runners and tennis players with at least 10 years of training were assessed as were age-matched and young exercisers. Performance was evaluated for 6 motor tasks requiring different functions of sensorimotor control expected to decline with aging. Results: Analysis revealed that runners had increased aerobic fitness in comparison with the other older participants and that they presented similar performance to older exercisers in the motor tasks. Tennis players outperformed the other groups of older participants on coincident timing and simple reaction time and achieved similar performance to the young group on the timing task. Conclusions: These results suggest selective maintenance of task-specific processing through extensive practice of tennis-related motor skills in older adults.     

Efficacy of Skinfold Training Clinics: A Comparison between Clinic Trained and Experienced Testers

Abstract

In an attempt to differentiate more adequately between the terms motor ability and athletic participation in their relationship to some measurable aspects of personality, a group of 167 Pomona College junior and senior male students were classified both as to level of motor ability and participation in athletics and were administered the CPI. Utilizing a total test response derived from the sum of ranks of median scores, low and middle motor ability groups ranked higher in the main effects and within the nonathlete and intramural participation groups, but athletic participation did not appear to have any effect upon the measures studied. The pattern of results suggested an expectation hypothesis wherein higher ratings in the personality inventory might be achieved by groups of subjects who participated at a level which would be “expected” in relation to their motor ability.     

Effect of Exertional Trend during Cycle Ergometry on Postexercise Affect

Purpose: Improvements in motor performance and coordination may be impacted by the interaction of practice and organismic constraints. It has been proposed that these aspects of motor learning are achieved at a different time rate: first, during placement of the events (performance), and second, segmental spatiotemporal relationships (coordination). We focused on the acquisition of the longswing in high bar as one basic skill in gymnastics. The aim of this study was to determine how longswing performance and coordination change to increase swing amplitude as age and expertise increase. Method: One hundred and thirteen male gymnasts were classified into 5 distinct age groups (G1, G2, G3, G4, and G5) on the basis of the national competition rules. Longswing performance (swing amplitude and event placements) and coordination (positive and negative areas in the continuous relative phase) were measured for each group. Results: Analyses of variance revealed that the adequate placement and coordination of the earlier events were achieved in younger groups (G1, G2), while later events and their coordination were accomplished by the older groups (G3 through G5). Conclusion: Our results suggested that the process of longswing acquisition, as age and expertise increase, follows a progression parallel to the temporal occurrence of the task events, instead of the proposed learning sequence of event placement first and then coordination.     

Efficiency of Motor Learning as a Function of Intertrial Rest

Abstract

The efficiency of two practice schedules was examined on two large muscle motor tasks. There were four groups of subjects (N = 160); each individual in a group performed on one of the two motor tasks under one of the two conditions. Distributed practice consisted of alternating 30-second trials of practice and rest; massed practice was continuous for 8 minutes. Comparisons made during the last minute of practice prior to the rest pause revealed that the massed groups had significant decrements in performance level. In contrast, after the rest period, when both groups were on a distributed schedule, no difference was found in the amount of learning. Learning was found to be a function of the number of trials and independent of the conditions of practice.     

Indicators of sailing performance in youth dinghy sailing

Abstract

This study aimed to determine indicators of sailing performance in 2 (age) groups of youth sailors by investigating the anthropometric, physical and motor coordination differences and factors discriminating between elite and non-elite male optimist sailors and young dynamic hikers. Anthropometric measurements from 23 optimist sailors (mean ± SD age = 12.3 ± 1.4 years) and 24 dynamic youth hikers (i.e. Laser 4.7, Laser radial and Europe sailors <18 years who have to sail the boat in a very dynamic manner, due to a high sailor to yacht weight ratio) (mean ± SD age = 16.5 ± 1.6 years) were conducted. They performed a physical fitness test battery (EUROFIT), motor coordination test battery (Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder) and the Bucket test. Both groups of sailors were divided into two subgroups (i.e. elites and non-elites) based on sailing expertise. The significant differences, taking biological maturation into account and factors discriminating between elite and non-elite optimist sailors and dynamic hikers were explored by means of multivariate analysis of covariance and discriminant analysis, respectively. The main results indicated that 100.0% of elite optimist sailors and 88.9% of elite dynamic hikers could be correctly classified by means of two motor coordination tests (i.e. side step and side jump) and Bucket test, respectively. As such, strength- and speed-oriented motor coordination and isometric knee-extension strength endurance can be identified as indicators of sailing performance in young optimist and dynamic youth sailors, respectively. Therefore, we emphasise the importance of motor coordination skill training in optimist sailors (<15 years) and maximum strength training later on (>15 years) in order to increase their isometric knee-extension strength endurance.     

The Relationship between Perceptual and Motor Abilities

Abstract

Eighty randomly selected kindergarten pupils were administered one of four figure-ground variations of a gross motor task in order to determine the effects of the various patterns on the performance of the task. All subjects were administered the figure-ground subtest of the Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception and the gross motor task which involved walking in a lateral direction between the rungs of a ladder placed in a horizontal position over a floor pattern. An analysis of variance revealed significant differences in the error-time performance among the groups. Pearson product-moment correlation techniques revealed significant relationships between the gross motor task and the Frostig test.     

Tracking of Gross Motor Coordination From Childhood Into Adolescence

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to analyze tracking and stability of motor coordination in children from age 6 years to ages 9 and 13 years. Method: Data were from the Copenhagen School Child Intervention Study. Motor coordination (MC) was measured using the körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) test. The crude performance score on every item was converted into a standardized “score” based on the original German reference study, which was used to generate a total standardized motor coordination (MQ) score. The MQ scores, which represented children's level of gross MC, were classified as low (MQ score < 85), normal (MQ score = 85–115), or high (MQ score>115). Pearson correlation was used to calculate the tracking coefficients of each KTK element and MQ score, and weighted kappa was used to analyze maintenance in MC classification groups. Mixed-effects logistic regression analyses were performed to examine the odds of remaining in the low MC group over time based on body mass index (BMI), weight, and height tertiles. Results: Tracking coefficients among the MQ score and each KTK element at different ages were moderate (r>.35). Children in the highest BMI and weight tertiles had a 5.44 and 5.15 times greater chance to be in the lower MC classification group during the 7-year follow-up, respectively, in comparison with children in their lowest tertiles. Conclusion: MC tracked moderately through childhood to early adolescence. Because heavier children had a greater chance to be in the lower MC group at older ages, intervention may be useful at earlier ages for those with lower MC and disadvantageous weight status.     

Statistical Procedures Used in Multiple-group Experiments

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine if differences in mental imagery exist among groups of university women varying in experience, interests, and abilities in motor skills. Subjects for this study were 77 women, all of whom were associated with the Pennsylvania State University. Included were 14 physical education faculty members, 18 senior physical education majors, 19 freshman physical education majors, and 26 freshman nonmajors. Mental imagery was measured with three imagery tests developed specifically for this study. Test data were analyzed and treated statistically using analysis of variance and Duncan's new multiple-range test. The four groups did not differ significantly in their ability to recognize previously presented geometric forms or previously presented motor acts. The three major groups were significantly superior in remembering details of motor demonstrations when compared to the least experienced.     

Neighborhood Physical Activity Opportunity: A Multilevel Contextual Model

Purpose: The aims of this study were to analyze the intensity of emotions (positive, negative, or ambiguous) produced when players took part in traditional games with a different social structure and to examine the explanations given by those participants for these emotional experiences. Method: Participants (N = 556) were recruited from 4 Spanish universities. After taking part in each of the games, they were asked to complete the Games and Emotions Questionnaire to indicate the intensity of their emotional experiences and to explain what, in their view, had led to the strongest emotion felt. Results: The application of a mixed-methods approach identified statistically significant differences in relation to 3 variables. These were (a) the type of emotion, (b) motor domain, and (c) type of result (win, loss, and noncompetitive). The intensity of positive emotions was higher in cooperative games and lower in individual games. Comments referring to negative emotions were more frequent as the social structure of games became more complex (minimal presence of individual games and predominance of cooperation-opposition games). Winning was associated with the highest intensity ratings of positive and ambiguous emotions, whereas being defeated produced the highest values for negative emotions. The intensity ratings for negative emotions were lower in noncompetitive games than in games where players lost. Conclusion: The results confirm that traditional games can play a key role in relation to the emotional facets of physical education.     

Improving Functional Movement Proficiency in Middle School Physical Education

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine whether functional movement proficiency could be improved as measured via the Functional Movement Screen using a standardized warm-up protocol in middle school physical education. A secondary purpose was to determine whether such improvement, if it occurred, would positively influence the technical performance of 4 fundamental motor skills: overhand throw, vertical jump, kicking, and running. Method: Participants were 120 7th- and 8th-grade physical education student volunteers. Two classes from each grade level were assigned to the functional group (N = 54) while the remaining 2 classes of each grade were assigned to the control group (N = 66). Baseline measures were obtained using the Functional Movement Screen and the Get Skilled: Get Active (2000) process-oriented motor skill assessment. For 6 weeks, the functional group warmed up by performing functional stretching, stability, and mobility exercises while the control group completed a traditional dynamic warm-up. Results: According to gain score analysis, those in the functional group significantly reduced dysfunctional movements (scores of 1) compared with those in the control group. Further, boys in the functional group significantly improved their Functional Movement Screen composite score as compared with their male counterparts in the control group whose scores declined. No differences were found for fundamental motor skill performance. Conclusion: Replacing the traditional dynamic warm-up with one that emphasizes functional movement in preparation for activity in physical education appears effective for correcting movement dysfunctions in young adolescents.     

Relationships between Changes in Health and Fitness and the Perception of Exercise

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine how weight training affected the physical fitness of football, basketball, and track and field squads when it was used as a supplement to normal training during different halves of the season. In each sport the athletes were divided into two matched groups: one did weight training during the first half of the season only, and the other group during the second half only. In general, the resulting statistics show that weight training adds significantly to the physical fitness produced by normal training.     

Changes in Fundamental Motor-Skill Performance Following a Nine-Month Mastery Motivational Climate Intervention

ABSTRACT

Purpose: Children who do not learn their fundamental motor skills (FMS) are more likely to be unskilled, sedentary adults. By consequence, it behooves those teaching physical education to put in place mechanisms that promote as well as motivate children to master their FMS. One approach to achieving this goal is through the adoption of mastery motivational climates (MMC) in physical education. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a year-long (9-month) MMC physical education program on preschool children’s FMS learning. Method: Participants (N = 96, MMC = 58, Comparison = 38) completed the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition prior to and after intervention. Intact classrooms were randomly assigned to either a MMC or comparison group. A repeated measures nested MANOVA was used to test changes by group. Follow-up measurements included univariate repeated measures and simple effects analyses. Results: There were no significant multivariate differences based on class membership (p = .249), indicating the nested structure was not associated with any meaningful differences in test scores. There was a significant multivariate difference based on the interaction of time (pre- versus post-test) and group (p < .001). Both locomotor and ball skills significantly varied between groups and across time. Children in both groups improved from pre-test to post-test, but the rate of improvement was significantly greater for the MMC group. Conclusions: A year-long MMC intervention is beneficial for improving children’s FMS.     

Effects of aerobic exercise and cognitively engaging exercise on cardiorespiratory fitness and motor skills in primary school children: A cluster randomized controlled trial

ABSTRACT

This paper examined effects of two interventions on cardiorespiratory fitness and motor skills, and whether these effects are influenced by baseline levels, and dose of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during the intervention. A cluster randomized controlled trial was implemented in 22 schools (n = 891; 9.2 ± 07 years). Intervention groups received aerobic or cognitively engaging exercise (14-weeks, four lessons per week). Control groups followed their regular physical education programme. Cardiorespiratory fitness, motor skills and MVPA were assessed. Multilevel analysis showed no main effects on cardiorespiratory fitness and motor skills although the amount of MVPA was higher in the aerobic than in the cognitively engaging and control group. Intervention effects did not depend on baseline cardiorespiratory fitness and motor skills. Children with a higher dose of MVPA within the intervention groups had better cardiorespiratory fitness after both interventions and better motor skills after the cognitively engaging intervention. In conclusion, the interventions were not effective to enhance cardiorespiratory fitness and motor skills at a group level, possibly due to large individual differences and to a total dose of MVPA too low to find effects. However, the amount of MVPA is an important factor that influence the effectiveness of interventions.     

Research on Teaching in Physical Education: Questions and Comments

Abstract

The purpose of this investigation was to study the effect of swimming on the learning and performance of two complex gross motor skills. Forty college men were matched on the basis of a pre-test and formed into experimental and control groups. The experimental group learned the two selected skills in addition to swimming, whereas the control group learned only the selected skills. Two scoring systems were used, and findings indicated no significant difference between groups.     

Bidirectional relationships of physical activity and gross motor skills before and after summer break: Application of a cross-lagged panel model

Background:Gross motor skills are postulated to have a bidirectional relationship with physical activity(PA);however,no study has tested this relationship before and after a summer break.The purpose of this study was to examine the bidirectional relationships between school PA and gross motor skills in children before and after a summer break.Methods:Participants were a sample of 440 children recruited from 3 low-income schools(age=8.9±1.2 years,mean±SD).PA was assessed as average school-day step counts using Yamax DigiWalker pedometers(Yamasa Tokei Keiki,Tokyo,Japan)worn for 5 consecutive school days.Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test for Gross Motor Development,3 rd edition.Data were collected at 2 timepoints:at the end of spring semester(T1)and at the beginning of the subsequent fall semester(T2).An age-and body mass index-adjusted cross-lagged model was employed to relate T1 school step counts with T2 gross motor skills and T1 gross motor skills with T2 school step counts.Results:T1 gross motor skills significantly predicted T2 school step counts(β=0.24,95%confidence interval(95%CI):0.08-0.40,p=0.003);however,Tl school step counts did not predict T2 gross motor skills(β=0.04,95%CI:-0.06 to 0.14,p=0.445).The model explained 35.4%and 15.9%of the variances of T2 gross motor skills and T2 school step counts,respectively.Additional analyses indicated that these relationships were driven primarily by ball skills.Conclusion:The relationship between gross motor skills and school PA was not bidirectional;however,higher gross motor skills,specifically ball skills,predicted higher school PA after a 3-month summer break.     

An Analysis of Water Resistance and Propulsion in Swimming the Crawl Stroke

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to develop an easily administered test of motor ability for college men. Expert opinion was used in the validation process and eight factors of motor ability and 29 items measuring those factors were chosen. The selected tests were administered to 222 college men and statistical analysis covered item reliability, objectivity, correlations with the criterion, and intercorrelations. Through use of the Doolittle technique multiple correlations and regression equations were computed for a number of combinations. Two test batteries including one short indoor test were recommended. Scoring tables, norms, score card, profile, and directions for administering are included in a test manual.     

Effects of Success/Failure and Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation Using a Competitive Motor Task

Abstract

Female high school students participated in a motor task to assess the effects of success/failure and extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. A questionnaire was administered to check for the degree of satisfaction after participation under each experimental condition. A significant change in intrinsic motivation was found to be due to the effects of success and failure, but not to the effect of the tangible reward. Those groups receiving success feedback persisted longer at the voluntary play situation than did those receiving failure feedback. As well, the task was deemed more satisfying for the success feedback groups. Results tend to indicate the potency of success over failure feedback in inducing intrinsic motivation and are interpreted in terms of cognitive evaluation versus the overjustification hypothesis.