Physical activity levels,game performance and friendship goals using two different pedagogical models: Sport Education and Direct Instruction

Background: Advances in technology have changed children’s lifestyle so much that the majority of them do not meet the recommended 60 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity every day. Compulsory Physical Education has been highlighted as an ideal context to achieve the suggested physical activity (PA) goals, since it could be the only place where some students become truly physically active. In those classes, the teacher selects a pedagogical approach and this selection could be vital to meet the advised PA levels.

Purpose: The goal was to assess the effects of two instructional approaches, Sport Education Model (SEM) and Direct Instruction (DI) in Primary Education students’ physical activity intensity levels, game performance, and friendship goals.

Method: A total of 88 students with an average age of 11.16?±?0.63 years, enrolled in two year-5 (from 10 to11 years) and two year-6 (from 11 to 12 years) Physical Education classes of the same school agreed to participate. The number of participants in the SEM was 47 and in DI was 41. The schools’ administration distributed one class of each grade to the experimental group, which experienced SEM, and to the non-equivalent group, which experienced DI. The content selected for both study groups was the same: Handball. Both study groups experienced a 15-session learning unit (45 min per class, three sessions per week). The goal was to conduct the experiment in a non-manipulated (intact) educational context. It followed a pre-test, post-test, experimental, non-equivalent group design. Participants wore Actigraph GT3X accelerometers in order to monitor physical activity levels, answered questionnaires to assess friendship goals, and their game performance was assessed using the Game Performance Assessment instrument (GPAI).

Results: Results showed that students who experienced the SEM had significantly higher light and moderate physical activity levels, friendship-approach and friendship-avoidance goals, while the ones who experienced DI had significantly higher sedentary physical activity levels. The GPAI scores showed significant gains in students’ game performance in both study groups, but these were larger in the SEM one.

Conclusions: The SEM could be considered more effective than DI to improve Primary Education students’ PA levels, game performance and friendship goals.     

Effects of starting score-line,game location,and quality of opposition in basketball quarter score

Abstract

In several team sports, the game starting score-line may be understood as a measure of performance accomplishment and hence might have an effect on players' subsequent efforts. The aim of this study was to identify the effect of the starting score-line, game location, and quality of opposition on basketball game quarter final score. The sample comprised 504 game quarters from the Spanish Basketball Professional League and these were classified as balanced (difference in scores equal of 8 points or less, n=194) and unbalanced (difference in scores of more than 8 points, n=310) using k-means cluster procedures. The effects of the predictor variables on game quarter outcome (difference between points scored and points received) in the whole game and in the second, third, and fourth game quarters were analysed using linear regression analysis. The starting game quarter score-line was only significant in unbalanced situations with very similar effects among different game quarters. The greater the difference in accumulated score at the beginning of each quarter, the more points recovered by the teams who were losing. A small effect from the quality of the opponent was found in the second and third quarters, whereas game location only had an effect when analysing the whole game and second quarter using balanced and unbalanced game quarters combined.     

Relationship of Trait Anxiety,Peer Presence,Task Difficulty,and Skill Acquisition of Sixth-Grade Boys

Abstract

The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC) trait anxiety questionnaire was administered to all sixth-grade boys at one school (N = 181). Based on results of the questionnaire, 40 high-anxious and 40 low-anxious subjects were identified for participation in the study. Stratified random assignments of these subjects in a counterbalanced manner resulted in the creation of eight experimental groups. The effects of an audience and task difficulty on learning and performance were considered in the experimental design. Two social conditions—learning in the presence of a single spectator or alone—and two conditions of task difficulty on the pursuit rotor—hard and easy—were employed. Each subject was tested on one day, under one condition of task difficulty, and under one social condition. Data were treated with a three-factor multivariate analysis of variance. Dependent variables were three STAIC anxiety scale scores used to evaluate within-task feelings of anxiety and three mean performance scores for each of three blocks of pursuit rotor trials. The results of the analyses indicated that significant main effects due to social situation were not apparent until the last block of trials, when subjects in the spectator condition did better. State anxiety scores for those who performed alone were significantly higher than for those who performed with a spectator present over all blocks of trials.

Although low-anxious subjects' overall mean performance scores were higher than high-anxious subjects' on the hard task, they were not significantly different from each other until the last block of trials. The overall mean performance scores for both groups for the easy task proved significantly higher for the low-anxious group. Though the results partially support the hypothesis that a spectator increases the learner's drive and facilitates performance, the majority of the results favor the theoretical hypotheses that a spectator reduces drive and serves to console or reassure the learner.     

The biomechanics of soccer: A review

Abstract

The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether combining two mental preparation strategies would be more effective in enhancing performances than a single strategy. Subjects (n = 40) practiced on a basketball free throw task (20 shots) using one of the following mental preparation strategies: (a) imagery, (b) relaxation, (c) relaxation plus imagery, (d) placebo control. To simulate game conditions, subjects were allowed only 10 s in which to use their mental preparation strategy. After the practice session, subjects shot 20 test free throws using their designated technique. Results indicated a significant main effect with the imagery group performing significantly better than the placebo control group although there were no specific differences between the three experimental groups. The results are discussed in terms of potential variables mediating the effectiveness of imagery in enhancing sport performance, and future directions for research are offered.     

Effect of Divided Attention on Children's Rhythmic Response

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of selective attention in rhythmic response of children. A motor rhythmic response of grade 2 (N = 30) and grade 4 (N = 29) boys was examined with respect to the sensory modality of a secondary stimulus input. It is thought that the information processing capacity of children, as manifested in the processes of selective attention, may be a factor in the developmental changes in motor skill learning and performance. Using a rhythmic analysis system, subjects in each grade level performed ten blocks of five trials in one of three groups: control, audio interference, and visual interference. Output from a dual-channel recorder was scored to give time and space errors (AE and CE). Performance variation (VE) was calculated from the error scores. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed significantly better performance by the grade 4 subjects. The treatment conditions did not significantly impair performance as measured by CE error scores. The audio input resulted in significantly less consistent temporal performance (VE).     

Reliability Estimates for Criterion-Referenced Measures in the Psychomotor Domain

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine procedures for estimating the reliability for a criterion-referenced measure in the psychomotor domain. Reliability is defined as the consistency of classification of examinees into mastery and nonmastery categories. Three trial mastery criteria—6, 7, 8—were utilized along with three test mastery criteria—.6n, .7n, .8n. Motor skill was defined as first-ball scores of each frame in a line of bowling. Since the empirical distribution functions for men and women subjects were significantly different at trial criteria of 6 and 7, separate reliability coefficients were estimated for each sex. The single administration estimates of reliability developed by Huynh and Subkoviak were equally good indicators of the Swaminathan-Hambleton-Algina estimate of P when the test was administered on 2 days (P represents the proportion of agreement of classifications). Variations in trial and test mastery criteria yielded different proportions of subjects assigned to mastery and nonmastery classifications. When the proportion in either category was high, P tended to be high. As the proportions in the two categories became more similar, the values of P tended to drop. In general, increasing the number of trials was paralleled by an increase in P.     

Differences in Sensorimotor Processing of Visual and Proprioceptive Stimuli

Abstract

The present study sought to determine whether individuals could be trained to attenuate the visual dominance effect by selecting a proprioceptive stimulus for attention. Using a reaction time (RT) task, subjects received either: (a) visual (V), (b) proprioceptive (P), or (c) combined V and P (VP) stimuli during the first four days. Each subject was then tested under all three stimuli conditions. Results showed that reaction time to the P cue was always faster than that to V or combined VP stimuli. The order in which subjects were tested under each stimulus modality significantly affected the results such that those subjects who received initial exposure to the V stimulus produced the slowest premotor time scores but the fastest motor time scores. These results suggest that the nature of the stimulus which initiates the volitional task can affect both the central processing requirements to initiate the response, and the qualitative manner in which the motor command is executed.     

Influence of Decision-Making on Attitudes,Creativity, Motor Skills and Self-Concept in Elementary Children

Abstract

Attitudes, creativity, self-concept and motor skills were measured to determine the influence of decision-making on elementary children. Three groups of children (N = 208) were tested, one group was taught with the teacher dominating all classroom decisions, another group was encouraged to share in the decision-making, and a third group served as a control. Data were collected immediately before and after an eight-week instructional period. MANCOVA indicated that the two treatment groups had significantly higher scores than did the control group, and the shared decision-making group scored significantly higher than the teacher dominated group on measures of creativity, motor skills and self-concept. A 2 (treatment) × 2 (sex) × 5 (grade) ANOVA revealed significantly more positive attitude scores for children allowed to make decisions regarding their learning. Further, Pearson product-moment correlation showed the tested variables to be independent measures of a child's development.     

Responses to Forces Influencing Cohesion As a Function of Player Status and Level of Male Varsity Basketball Competition

Abstract

This exploratory study determined if the responses of male varsity basketball players to six factors influencing cohesion were a function of level of competitive intensity and/or the importance of the players to their team. Players on intact teams from five levels of competition – elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, small college and large college–responded to a cohesion questionnaire at the end of the season. Coaches designated five players with the most game playing time as “starters” and five players with the least game playing time as “reserves.” A team factor score for Team Performance Satisfaction, Self Performance Satisfaction, Task Cohesion, Affiliation Cohesion, Desire for Recognition and Value of Membership was calculated. Each team factor score served as the dependent variable in a 2 (player status) × 5 (level of competition) analysis ofcovariance design, with teams nested in the second factor. The won-loss record served as the covariate. Results indicated that “starters” were more satisfied with their own performance, were more task conscious, had a greater affiliation desire, and valued their membership on the team to a greater degree than the “reserves.” The elementary and junior high school team members were significantly more satisfied with the team's performance, were more satisfied with their own self performance, were more affiliation conscious, and valued their team membership to a greater degree than did college team members. The interaction between player status and level of competition was not significant for any of the factor scores.     

Notes: Evaluation of Physical Education in North Carolina High Schools

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine if there were differences in learning to perform a novel motor task between two equated groups: one group was subjected to learning the task immediately following a heavy physical work bout on a bicycle ergometer; the other group was subjected to learning the task with no imposed physical exercise. It was found that the subjects who practiced the stabilometer exercise in a fatigued state performed significantly better than subjects in the control group except for test 4. The experimental group also performed significantly better than the control group during the 5th test which was performed without any fatiguing task. It appears from this study that the fatigue state of the learner had a favorable influence on both performance and learning of certain novel motor skills.     

Active video games in fully immersive virtual reality elicit moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and improve cognitive performance in sedentary college students

Background:Active video games are a new method for increasing physical activity(PA).Fully immersive virtual reality(VR)is a hardware device on which an active video game can run.Active(video games in)VR(AVR),might increase immersion,game engagement,and moderate-to-vigorous PA(MVPA),thereby yielding greater exercise-related benefits,e.g.,cognitive performance.Methods:We examined the induction of MVPA via an AVR and a sedentary VR(SVR)as well as the effects of VR play on cognitive performance,which was monitored using 2 different methods.Each of 29 sedentary college students attended three 20-min laboratory sessions(AVR,SVR,or control)in a randomized order;during the control session,they sat quietly doing nothing.A fully immersive headset was used for the 2 video game sessions.We monitored and computed participants’PA using hip-wom accelerometers(wGT3 x-bt;ActiGraph,Pensacola,FL,USA)and a heart rate band(Polar H7;Polar,Kempele,Finland).After each session,the participants completed a mnemonic similarity test(MST)to measure recognition memory.They also filled out a motion sickness questionnaire and an abbreviated game experience questionnaire.Results:The AVR session induced a significantly greater heart rate and more time spent in MVPA than did either of the other 2 sessions regardless of the PA monitoring method.AVR elicited greater game experience questionnaire-assessed sensory and imaginative immersion,challenge,and positive affect than did SVR.The mnemonic similarity test recognition score was marginally higher post-AVR session than it was post-SVR session.Conclusion:AVR elicited MVPA without a significant increase in motion sickness and induced a better game experience and better borderline cognitive performance than did SVR.     

The Relationship of Cognitive Style and Instructional Strategy to Learning and Transfer of Motor Skills

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to test the validity of the games for understanding model by comparing it to a technique approach to instruction and a control group. The technique method focused primarily on skill instruction where the skill taught initially was incorporated into a game at the end of each lesson. The games for understanding approach emphasized developing tactical awareness and decision making in small game situations. Two physical education specialists taught field hockey using these approaches for 15 lessons (45 min each). The control group did not receive any field hockey instruction. Data were collected from 71 middle school children. Pretests and posttests were administered for hockey knowledge, skill, and game performance. Separate analyses of variance or analyses of covariance were conducted to examine group differences for cognitive and skill outcomes. The games for understanding group scored significantly higher on passing decision making than the technique and control groups during posttest game play and significantly higher than the control group for declarative and procedural knowledge. The games for understanding group scored significantly higher on control and passing execution than the other groups during posttest game play. For hockey skill, there were no significant differences among the treatment groups for accuracy, but the technique group recorded faster times than the control group on the posttest.     

Gender Role and Sport Competition Anxiety: A Re-examination

Abstract

The present study tested whether there were significant sport competition anxiety differences among sex-typed, androgynous, and cross sex-typed subjects and whether these differences were consistent with gender schema theory (Bem, 1981b).

Approximately 700 subjects were administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and, using two methods of scoring, 216 subjects were selected because of being either sex-typed (masculine males, feminine females), cross sex-typed (masculine females, feminine males) or androgynous (males and females who have strong masculine and feminine dimensions). Each subject was tested for competition anxiety using the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT). A one-way ANOVA of SCAT scores by group was significant, F(5,210) = 6.52, p < .001. Post-hoc analysis revealed that feminine females had significantly more competitive trait anxiety than all other groups and androgynous females were more anxious than masculine males (p < .05). The results are discussed in terms of gender schema theory.     

A Field Study of Traditional and Nontraditional Children's Baseball

Abstract

Nine- to 10-year-old children have difficulty playing baseball using adult rules because pitchers lack the ability to throw the ball over the plate with consistency and batters lack ability to hit erratically thrown balls. Thus a natural field experiment investigated a modification of adult baseball for 9- to 10-year-old children. Instead of one of the players on the opposing team pitching, the coach of the offensive team pitched to the batters. Teams in a league who played baseball by adult rules (traditional league) were compared with teams in a league who played the modified game (nontraditional league), and both these leagues were compared with 11- to 12-year-old teams (older league). Various offensive and defensive activities were recorded by two observers and satisfaction scores were obtained from the players after the games. More offensive and defensive activity occurred in the nontraditional league games than in the traditional and older league games.     

Rhythmic Isometric Fatigue Patterns of the Elbow Flexors and Knee Extensors

Abstract

Twenty-seven male subjects performed two 5-min bouts of rhythmic, isometric elbow flexion and two similar bouts of knee extension at a rate of 30 maximal contractions per min. Exponential analyses revealed that the pattern of fatigue for each limb followed a single component curve of the form: Y_t = a₀e ^?Kot + c. An analysis of variance comparing the results from the two limbs revealed that (a) the strength scores for the leg were significantly (p < .05) higher than those for the arm throughout the exercise bouts; (b) both limbs experienced a significant strength decrement; and (c) there was significant interaction between trials and limbs. It appeared that the greater loss of strength by the knee extensors was reponsible for this interaction. It was concluded that during a rhythmic, all-out task, the rates of fatigue experienced by the two muscle groups tend to differ, with the elbow flexors fatiguing more rapidly initially but reaching a plateau at a relatively higher level than the knee extensors.     

Energy Expenditure and Intensity of Active Video Games in Children and Adolescents

Purpose: This study aimed to compare the energy expenditure and intensity of active video games to that of treadmill walking in children and adolescents. Method: Seventy-two boys and girls (aged 8–13 years) were recruited from local public schools. Energy expenditure and heart rate were measured during rest, during 3-km/hr, 4-km/hr, and 5-km/hr walks, and during active games (Adventure, Boxing I, Boxing II, and Dance). During walking and active games, we also assessed physical activity using an accelerometer. Results: The energy expenditure of the active games Adventure, Boxing I, Boxing II, and Dance was similar to that of treadmill walking at 5 km/hr in boys and girls. Heart rate was significantly higher for the game Adventure compared with walking at 3 km/hr, 4 km/hr, and 5 km/hr and the game Dance in both genders. The heart rate of girls during the games Adventure and Dance was significantly higher compared with boys. There was a statistically significant difference (p < .05, with an effect size ranging from 0.40 to 3.54) in the counts·min^?1, measured through accelerometry, between activities. Conclusion: XBOX 360 Kinect games provide energy expenditure and physical activity of moderate intensity for both genders. The use of active video games can be an interesting alternative to increase physical activity levels.     

Support Base Use in Two Dance Idioms

Abstract

Recovery pulse rates following a 3-min. step test were obtained from 686 junior high school and 1,332 high school age subjects who were students in 55 different secondary schools throughout the six districts of the AAHPER. The pulse rates were converted to cardiovasular efficiency scores and from these, national standards were established for the 9–14 age group and for the 15 19 age group. The standards consisted of six categories from excellent to very poor. In addition, it was found that junior high school subjects scored better than high school subjects; that neither temperature nor time of day of testing had a significant effect on test scores; and that at the high school level the senior high school subjects in the Central district achieved the best scores of the six districts while at the junior high level the Central and Southern districts ranked together as best.     

Personal Autonomy of Scuba Diver Trainees

Abstract

An investigation of personal autonomy levels as measured by the Pensacola Z scale was conducted on 147 scuba diving trainees at the University of California at Los Angeles. The study was part of an effort to develop insight into selection and training procedures for reliable underwater workers. Findings revealed that diver trainees described themselves as individualistically as did groups of astronauts and Antarctic scientists, but their Z-scale scores were not significantly different from other campus groups. Further, the Z-scale did not significantly differentiate between successful trainees and dropouts in the course. A weak relationship was found between the Z-scale score and scuba diving performance during pool testing. It was concluded that the qualities measured by the Z-scale test may be more important to the future diving careers of the subjects than to their selection and training.     

Study of the Effects of Competitive Basketball upon the Physical Fitness of High School Boys as Determined by McCurdy-Larson Organic Efficiency Tests

Abstract

This methodology study was to determine if testing subjects on a specific day of four phases of the menstrual cycle would yield results which would be comparable to testing subjects on each day of the corresponding phases of the cycle and if the test results of one cycle would be comparable to those of two consecutive cycles. A statistical comparison of the mean scores for a specific day of each phase of the cycle and the mean scores for the average of all days for each phase of the cycle was made for pulse rate before exercise, pulse rate after exercise, and the difference in the pulse rate before and after exercise, or pulse rate increase. None of the t ratios obtained were significant. A statistical comparison was also made for the mean scores for two mentrual cycles for pulse rate before and after exercise, pulse rate increases, weight, and temperature. None of the t ratios were significant. It was concluded that testing subjects on a specific day of each of four phases of one menstrual cycle would be a satisfactory testing procedure.     

The Applicability of the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula When Applied to Physical Performance Tests

Abstract

Data from four physical performance tests were collected from approximately 260 subjects and were used to determine (a) whether the split-half method is a valid procedure for estimating the reliability of multiple trial physical performance tests, and (b) whether the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula will be an accurate predictor of the reliability of a physical performance test when its length is increased. A significant day-to-day variation in test scores was found at the .05 level. The assumptions underlying the use of the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula were significantly violated at the .05 level. Seventy-nine percent of the reliability coefficients computed by the split-half method were higher than the test-retest reliability coefficients. Seventy-two percent of the reliability coefficients predicted by the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula were higher than the obtained test-retest reliability coefficients.