Bullying May Be Fueled by the Desperate Need to Belong

Human beings have a fundamental need to belong, for ongoing positive interactions with others who provide companionship and caring (Baumeister & Leary, 1995 Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Children may hit, exclude, or harass others electronically because when their own needs for belongingness are threatened, or when they want to enhance their own status, they lash out and hurt others in the way they think will be most painful, by engaging in behaviors that undermine the target's sense of belongingness. For reasons discussed herein, children and adolescents might be especially vulnerable to desperate needs for belongingness. Viewing bullying as motivated by the need to belong has profound implications for prevention and intervention programs to reduce bullying.     

Constructing Approximate Confidence Intervals for Parameters With Structural Equation Models

Confidence intervals (CIs) for parameters are usually constructed based on the estimated standard errors. These are known as Wald CIs. This article argues that likelihood-based CIs (CIs based on likelihood ratio statistics) are often preferred to Wald CIs. It shows how the likelihood-based CIs and the Wald CIs for many statistics and psychometric indexes can be constructed with the use of phantom variables (Rindskopf, 1984 Rindskopf, D. 1984. Using phantom and imaginary latent variables to parameterize constraints in linear structural models. Psychometrika, 49: 37–47. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) in some of the current structural equation modeling (SEM) packages. The procedures to form CIs for the differences in correlation coefficients, squared multiple correlations, indirect effects, coefficient alphas, and reliability estimates are illustrated. A simulation study on the Pearson correlation is used to demonstrate the advantages of the likelihood-based CI over the Wald CI. Issues arising from this SEM approach and extensions of this approach are discussed.     

An Examination of Statistical Power in Multigroup Dynamic Structural Equation Models

This study used statistical simulation to calculate differential statistical power in dynamic structural equation models with groups (as in McArdle & Prindle, 2008 McArdle, J. J. and Prindle, J. J. 2008. A latent change score analysis of a randomized clinical trial in reasoning training. Psychology and Aging, 23: 702–719. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Patterns of between-group differences were simulated to provide insight into how model parameters influence power approximations. Chi-square and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) power approximation procedures were used to compare the effects of parameter manipulations and how researchers should interpret findings. The chi-square power of perfect fit calls for at least 270 individuals to detect moderate differences, whereas the RMSEA procedure of close fit seems to require as many as 1,450 participants. It is shown that parameters that provide input into the change score that the transfer leads to affect power versus indirect pathways. A discussion of differences in approximation values and future research directions follows.     

Knowledge Exchange,Social Interactions,and Empowerment in an Intergenerational Technology Program at School

This is a sequel to previous theoretical papers (Gamliel, Reichental, & Eyal, 2007a Gamliel , T. , Reichental , Y. , & Eyal , N. (2007a). Intergenerational educational encounters: Part 1: A model of knowledge. Educational Gerontology , 33, 1–22.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2007b Gamliel , T. , Reichental , Y. , & Eyal N. ( 2007b ). Intergenerational educational encounters: Part 2: Counseling implications of the model . Educational Gerontology , 33 , 145 – 164 .[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) that proposed a Model of Knowledge in Volume 33 of this journal. The study examines the effects of digital education on intergenerational empowerment and social interaction among participants in the Israeli Multigenerational Connection Program (MCP). The program pairs seniors and children in computer-room activities at primary schools and encourages both groups to benefit by learning from each other. Findings from feedback questionnaires, field observations, and semistructured interviews show that the MCP was successful in building an intergenerational bridge. The flexible structuring of the roles of teacher and pupil contributed to participants' satisfaction with the program, and the intergenerational knowledge exchanges empowered both groups and allowed them to reach out to each other. Implications for educators, both in the community and in mainstream schools, are discussed.     

Structural Equation Models of Latent Interactions: Clarification of Orthogonalizing and Double-Mean-Centering Strategies

The purpose of this investigation is to compare a new (double-mean-centering) strategy to estimating latent interactions in structural equation models with the (single) mean-centering strategy (Marsh, Wen, & Hau, 2004 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z. and Hau, K. T. 2004. Structural equation models of latent interactions: Evaluation of alternative estimation strategies and indicator construction.. Psychological Methods, 9: 275–300. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2006 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z. and Hau, K. T. 2006. “Structural equation models of latent interaction and quadratic effects”. In A second course in structural equation modeling Edited by: Hancock, G. and Mueller, R. 225–265. Greenwich, CT: Information Age.  [Google Scholar]) and the orthogonalizing strategy (Little, Bovaird, & Widaman, 2006 Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A. and Widaman, K. F. 2006. On the merits of orthogonalizing powered and product term: Implications for modeling interactions among latent variables.. Structural Equation Modeling, 13: 497–519. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Marsh et al., 2007 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z., Hau, K. T., Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A. and Widaman, K. F. 2007. Unconstrained structural equation models of latent interactions: Contrasting residual- and mean-centered approaches.. Structural Equation Modeling, 14: 570–580. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). A key benefit of the orthogonalizing strategy is that it eliminated the need to estimate a mean structure as required by the mean-centering strategy, but required a potentially cumbersome 2-step estimation procedure. In contrast, the double-mean-centering strategy eliminates both the need for the mean structure and the cumbersome 2-stage estimation procedure. Furthermore, although the orthogonalizing and double-mean-centering strategies are equivalent when all indicators are normally distributed, the double-mean-centering strategy is superior when this normality assumption is violated. In summary, we recommend that applied researchers wanting to estimate latent interaction effects use the double-mean-centering strategy instead of either the single-mean-centering or orthogonalizing strategies, thus allowing them to ignore the cumbersome mean structure.     

In Defense of Clarity in the Study of Personal Epistemology

Andrew Elby (this issue) argues that researchers in the field of personal epistemology should beware insistence on a narrow definition of epistemology to guide this work. His argument is a response to suggestions (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997 Hofer, B. K. and Pintrich, P. R. 1997. The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning.. Review of Educational Research, 67(1): 88–140. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Sandoval, 2005 Sandoval, W. A. 2005. Understanding students' practical epistemologies and their influence on learning through inquiry.. Science Education, 89: 634–656. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) that the study of personal epistemology should focus on people's views about knowledge and knowing and not conflate those with views about learning. His main concern is that learners' views about knowledge and their views about learning may, in fact, be conflated and that an insistence on definitional clarity could lead to a mischaracterization of cognitive structures. In this response I argue that clarity in the definition of theoretical constructs does not imply exclusion of views about learning from the study of personal epistemology. Furthermore, given the history of this area of research, failing to more clearly define our constructs makes real theoretical progress difficult.     

Who Knows What? Maintaining Multiple Perspectives During Reading

Recent findings (Keysar, 1994 Keysar, B. 1994. The illusory transparency of intention: Linguistic perspective taking in text.. Cognitive Psychology, 26: 165–208. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Weingartner & Klin, 2005 Weingartner, K. M. and Klin, C. M. 2005. Perspective taking during reading: An on-line investigation of the illusory transparency of intention.. Memory & Cognition, 33: 48–58. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) have shown that readers are not always accurate at taking a story character's perspective. When readers evaluated a character's understanding of a written message, they mistakenly took into account information that was inaccessible to that character. The results from the three experiments reported here demonstrate that this “illusory transparency of intention” is not dependent on the message readers' communicative role: Even when the message was composed for one character but read by another, readers assumed that the message was understood as it was intended. The results are discussed in the context of two theoretical accounts for these perspective-taking errors: the “knowledge projection hypothesis,” which appeals to readers’ expectations about cooperative behavior during communication, and “construal,” which attributes the illusory transparency of intention to a general cognitive bias that occurs during the perception of ambiguous stimuli.     

Reliability and Validity of a Hebrew Version of the Kogan's Attitudes Toward Old People Scale

The objective of this study was to evaluate the reliability and validity of the Hebrew version of Kogan's (1961 Kogan , N. ( 1961 ). Attitudes Toward Old People: The development of a scale and an examination of correlates . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 62 ( 1 ), 44 – 54 . doi: 10.1037/h0048053 [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) Attitudes Toward Old People scale. A self-administered questionnaire in Hebrew was given to a convenience sample of 300 people under the age of 65 who resided in three neighborhoods in Tel Aviv. The Hebrew version of the Attitudes toward Old People scale demonstrated good psychometric properties. Internal consistency of Cronbach's alpha was high (α = .89). Factor analysis showed five loading factors. The Israeli version of the scale was found to be a valid and reliable instrument for measuring the general population's attitudes toward older people. It can be a useful instrument for studies in Israel as well as for cross-national and comparative studies to assess the degree of ageism towards older people.     

A Theory-Driven Model of Community College Student Engagement

This mixed-methods study develops, operationalizes, and tests a new conceptual model of community college student engagement. Themes emerging from participant observations and semistructured interviews with 30 adult students enrolled at a Large Best Practices Community College (LBPCC) over the 2005–2006 academic year are used to guide selection of Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985 Deci , E. L. & Ryan , R. M. ( 1985 ). Intrinsic motivation and self-direction behavior . New York : Plenum .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 2000 Deci , E. L. & Ryan , R. M. ( 2000 ). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 25 , 54 – 67 .[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2002 Deci , E. L. & Ryan , R. M. ( 2002 ). Handbook of self-determination research . Rochester , NY : University of Rochester . [Google Scholar]) to frame the new conceptual model. Structural equation modeling techniques confirm that variables and relationships proposed by the new model represent a good fit with data from over 1,000 students surveyed in the Community College Survey of Student Engagement. Findings from this study suggest that community college engagement and related outcomes can be fostered by tuning campus policies, practices, and climates to promote students' senses of belonging, competence, and autonomy.     

Ecological Theory: Preventing Youth Bullying,Aggression, and Victimization

Bronfenbrenner's (1977) Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513–531.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] classic ecological theory is used as a framework to review the documented risk and protective factors associated with involvement in school-related bullying during childhood and adolescence. Microsystems such as peers (socialization during adolescence), family (violence, lack of parental monitoring), community (exposure to violence), and schools (teacher attitudes, climate) contribute to the rates of bullying perpetrated or experienced by youth. The interaction between components of the microsystem is referred to as the mesosystem, and offers insight into how contexts can exacerbate or buffer experiences for youth who are involved in bullying (e.g., family support can buffer impact of peer victimization). Recommendations are provided for teachers and other adults who work with youth.     

A Note on the Use of Missing Auxiliary Variables in Full Information Maximum Likelihood-Based Structural Equation Models

Recent missing data studies have argued in favor of an “inclusive analytic strategy” that incorporates auxiliary variables into the estimation routine, and Graham (2003) Graham, J. W. 2003. Adding missing-data relevant variables to FIML-based structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 10: 80–100. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] outlined methods for incorporating auxiliary variables into structural equation analyses. In practice, the auxiliary variables often have missing values, so it is reasonable to ask whether the inclusion of such variables will improve the estimation of model parameters. Simulation results indicated that the proportion of missing data and the missing data mechanism of the auxiliary variables had little impact on bias. Even when an auxiliary variable was missing not at random, bias was relegated to the auxiliary variable portion of the model, and did not propagate into the model of substantive interest. The study results suggest that the inclusion of an auxiliary variable is beneficial, even if the auxiliary variable has a substantial proportion of missing data.     

Beyond deficit models for integrating language,literacy and numeracy in Australian VET

In light of the perceived new significance to the Australian economy of adult language, literacy and numeracy (LLN) skills, this paper presents a broad picture of how LLN is being integrated in Australian vocational education and training (VET) and, through reference to selected programmes, indicates some future directions. Based on a national environmental scan of LLN providers and in-depth interviews with over 50 VET teachers and managers, we conclude that integrated LLN in Australian VET largely fits a deficit paradigm. In the main, students are assessed at the beginning of their course to identify the LLN skills they lack and then provided with assistance from a specialist LLN teacher, which may be in the form of individual support in a study centre, tuition in a separate LLN programme, or assistance within a team teaching structure in the vocational classroom. We focus mainly on the latter in this paper, explaining that often the LLN teacher assumes a secondary, ‘hovering’ role in the vocational classroom, helping primarily those students identified to be ‘in need’ of LLN support, while the vocational teacher delivers the vocational content. We provide examples of alternative models of integrated LLN which feature a shared or equal role for the LLN teacher, and we examine these using a theoretical framework developed from the work of Lea and Street (1998 Lea, M. and Street, B. 1998. Student writing in higher education: An academic literacies approach. Studies in Higher Education, 23(2): 157–172. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2006 Lea, M. and Street, B. 2006. The ‘academic literacies’ model: Theory and applications. Theory into Practice, 45(4): 368–377. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) on academic writing. Based on Lea and Street’s work, we refer to these models as: ‘study skills’, ‘vocational socialisation’ and ‘vocational literacies and numeracies’.     

Identifying Possible Sources of Differential Functioning Using Differential Bundle Functioning With Polytomously Scored Data

Oshima, Raju, Flowers, and Slinde (1998) Oshima, T. C., Raju, N. S., Flowers, C. P. and Slinde, J. A. 1998. Differential bundle functioning using the DFIT framework: Procedures for identifying possible sources of differential functioning. Applied Measurement in Education, 11: 353–369. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] described procedures for identifying sources of differential functioning for dichotomous data using differential bundle functioning (DBF) derived from the differential functioning of items and test (DFIT) framework (Raju, van der Linden, & Fleer, 1995 Raju, N. S., van der Linden, W. J. and Fleer, P. F. 1995. IRT-based internal measures of differential functioning of items and tests. Applied Psychological Measurement, 19: 353–368. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The purpose of this study was to extend the procedures for dichotomous DBF to the polytomous case and to illustrate how DBF analysis can be conducted with polytomous scoring, common to psychological and educational rating scales. The data set used was parent and teacher ratings of child problem behaviors. Three group contrasts (teacher vs. parent, boy vs. girl, and random groups) and two bundle organizing principles (subscale designation and random selection) were used for the DBF analysis. Interpretations of bundle indexes in the context of child problem behaviors were presented.     

Aging and Concurrent Task Performance: Cognitive Demand and Motor Control

A motor task that requires fine control of upper limb movements and a cognitive task that requires executive processing—first performing them separately and then concurrently—was performed by 18 young and 18 older adults. The motor task required participants to tap alternatively on two targets, the sizes of which varied systematically. The cognitive task required participants to generate a series of random numbers at fixed production rates. Participants' performance on the motor task decreased slightly from single- to concurrent-task condition, and the dual-task cost was age-independent. Older adults showed large cognitive dual-task costs as motor-control demands increased. Younger adults' cognitive performance was not affected by concurrent task demands. These results are discussed in light of the permeation model developed by Baltes and Lindenberger (1997 Baltes , P. B. & Lindenberger , U. ( 1997 ). Emergence of a powerful connection between sensory and cognitive functions across the adult life span: A new window to the study of cognitive aging? Psychology and Aging , 12 ( 1 ), 12 – 21 . [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA] [CROSSREF] [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Practical implications and educational recommendations are presented.     

Comparison of Direct Instruction and Discrete Trial Teaching on the Curriculum-based Assessment of Language Performance of Students with Autism

There is limited research demonstrating direct instruction (DI) as an effective language intervention for students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and developmental disabilities (DD). Existing research has shown that instruction using partial implementation of DI programs resulted in student learning (Ganz, 2007 Ganz, M. L. (2007). The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 343&349.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and instruction using whole lessons resulted in positive instructional effects for students with ASD and DD (Ganz, 2007 Ganz, M. L. (2007). The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 343&349.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). However, it is not known whether DI is more effective than other language interventions. The purpose of this study was to compare DI to an established intervention, discrete trial teaching. Thirteen students with ASD or participated in the study and data were collected using curriculum-based assessment. An independent samples t-test indicated that there was a statistically significant difference in student performance for the group who received DI. Results and their implications will be discussed.     

The Devil is in the Detail Regarding the Efficacy of Reading Recovery: A rejoinder to Schwartz,Hobsbaum, Briggs,and Scull

This rejoinder provides comment on issues raised by Schwartz, Hobsbaum, Briggs and Scull (2009 Schwartz, R. M., Hobsbaum, A., Briggs, C. and Scull, J. 2009. Reading Recovery and evidence‐based practice: A response to Reynolds and Wheldall (2007). International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 56(1): 5–15. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]) in their article about evidence‐based practice and Reading Recovery (RR), written in response to Reynolds and Wheldall (2007 Reynolds, M. and Wheldall, K. 2007. Reading Recovery twenty years down the track: Looking forward, looking back. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 54: 199–223. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). Particular attention is paid to the processes and findings of the What Works Clearinghouse evaluation of RR. The suggestion that this evaluation is flawed casts doubt about some of its findings. The authors maintain their earlier stance that RR is effective for many students but do not accept that there is evidence that initial gains are sustained through the primary grades, that RR is an efficient tier two intervention in a response to intervention approach and that significant cost benefits have been demonstrated in education systems. It is concluded that research into alternative interventions that could be implemented at lower cost is warranted.     

The Cognitive Linkage and Divergence of Spelling and Reading Development

This study aimed to investigate to what extent reading and spelling share cognitive processes at different phases of literacy acquisition. The contributions of phonological awareness, letter-sound matching skills, and rapid naming (RAN) to spelling and reading were measured in a large sample with Dutch children (N?=?1,284) covering all primary school grades. The results indicated a different developmental pattern for spelling than for reading. At initial phases of literacy acquisition, phonological awareness and letter-sound matching skills contributed to both reading and spelling performance. However, in contrast to the declining influence of phonological awareness and letter-sound matching skills on fluent word reading (see also Vaessen & Blomert, 2010 Vaessen, A. and Blomert, L. 2010. Long term cognitive dynamics of fluent reading development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105: 213–231. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.005[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), the contributions of these skills to spelling performance were stable over the years, suggesting an ongoing reliance on orthography/phonology mappings during spelling. RAN did not contribute to spelling performance in any of the grades, in contrast to its strong contribution to reading performance, suggesting that RAN captures a cognitive skill that is unique for reading acquisition.     

Mirror,Mirror on the Wall: Ageist and Sexist Double Jeopardy Portrayals in Children's Picture Books

Bandura's Social Learning Theory purports that early exposure to this social information may have an impact on children's schema development (e.g., Bandura, 2001 Bandura , A. ( 2001 ). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective . Annual Review of Psychology , 52 , 1 – 26 .[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), which may influence how children and later adults think about what it means to age and get older (e.g., what it means to be an aging woman in society). By extension, if the portrayal of aging women characters in picture books contains both ageist and sexist attitudes, then the concern is that learned double jeopardy social schemas may influence both children's and the broader society's reactions to this aging sub-population (Chappell & Havens, 1980 Chappell , N. L. , & Havens , B. ( 1980 ). Old and women: Testing the double jeopardy hypothesis . The Sociological Quarterly , 21 ( 2 ), 157 – 171 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and personal self-efficacy toward aging (Bandura, 2011 Bandura , A. ( 2011 , September). On the functional properties of perceived self-efficacy revisited. Journal of Management pp. 1–37. doi:10.1177/0149206311410606  [Google Scholar]). For the purpose of the current research, a possible double jeopardy portrayal was examined for older women characters in children's picture books. Using a stratified random sampling of 90 children's picture books, results found that older book characters were depicted in only about one-third of the sampled books, and older women portrayals were generally more negative (e.g., “hag”). The current study analyzed the biased aging portrayals in children's picture books, and found evidence for double jeopardy (e.g., both ageist and sexist attitudes combined) in how aging women characters were presented in both text and imagery. Implications toward future research and education interventions that convey more positive messages about aging and being a woman aging in society will be discussed.     

Colleague supervision – ‘ignored and undervalued’? The views of students and supervisors in a new university

Colleague supervision is increasingly used in UK modern (post-92) universities to support the progress of academic staff to doctoral qualifications. Denicolo (2004 Denicolo, P. 2004. Doctoral supervision of colleagues: Peeling off the veneer of satisfaction and competence. Studies in Higher Education, 29(6): 693–707. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) argues that it is a ‘role relationship that has been largely ignored or undervalued by administration’ (p. 693) and colleague students and supervisors ‘felt more vulnerable’ than other students/supervisors (p. 706). This small-scale research amongst students and staff in a colleague supervision relationship at a single UK modern university tests Denicolo’s (2004 Denicolo, P. 2004. Doctoral supervision of colleagues: Peeling off the veneer of satisfaction and competence. Studies in Higher Education, 29(6): 693–707. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) propositions and those of Deuchar (2008 Deuchar, R. 2008. Facilitator, director or critical friend? Contradiction and congruence in doctoral supervision. Teaching in Higher Education, 13(4): 489–500. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) on supervision styles. It found that students did not feel ‘vulnerable’ but considered there were significant benefits from colleague supervision. They, and some supervisors, were also very supportive of group supervision methods that, alongside conventional individual supervision, gave strong support to the progress of colleague students to timely completion of their doctoral studies. As many UK modern universities are attempting to build research capacity through doctoral research training, the use of group supervision alongside colleague supervisors may offer benefits in a time when supervisory capacity has been stretched.     

Critically Enlightened Romantic Values and English Pedagogy: A Response to Peter Medway

In this response to Peter Medway's paper, ‘English and Enlightenment’ (Changing English 17:1, 2010 Medway, P. 2010. English and Enlightenment. Changing English, 17(1): 3–12. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]), I take issue with little of what he so lucidly writes, except his implicit and occasionally explicit denunciation of Romanticism as the proper basis of English pedagogy. I am concerned in this paper to emphasise the positive aspects of Romanticism in giving a vivid flavour to experience – surely the foundation of any humane values – whilst simultaneously attempting to reposition Romanticism in the direction of Critical Pedagogy. In this venture, I draw especially on William Blake, the subject of a previous exploration in this journal (Stevens, Changing English 7:1, 2000 Stevens, D. 2000. William Blake in Education: A Poet for Our Times?. Changing English, 7(1): 55–63. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]), and Paulo Freire.