儿童动作能力发展研究进展

儿童动作能力发展史是儿童发展研究的重要组成部分，不仅能够对儿童的认知、社会性及人格发展产生重要作用，还对儿童青少年体质健康促进、规律锻炼行为养成有重要价值。文章在对儿童动作能力发展研究的主要术语和概念进行辨析的基础上，将儿童动作能力发展置于人类发展研究范畴之中，系统回顾了生物学、心理学以及社会学领域，儿童动作能力发展的相关研究，归纳儿童发展的典型方式和影响机制，聚焦儿童发展过程中的重要组成部分——动作能力的发展及其研究进展和趋势进行系统性回顾，以期能够为学者和研究人员开展儿童动作能力的相关研究和实践工作提供理论支撑。     

儿童动作协调能力发展问题研究的理论进展

本文通过文献研究,简要的回顾了有关儿童动作协调发展问题的不同理论观点,对格赛尔、麦格皮亚杰、伯恩斯坦等人的动作发展观和动作协调定义进行了重点分析讨论。作者认为：皮亚杰的“平衡”观和伯恩斯坦开创的自然物理学研究方法是当前动作协调发展问题研究最具说服力与最具代表性的观点     

Age and Sex Differences in Motor Performance of 3 through 6 Year Old Children

Abstract

This study examined the relationship of age and sex to the performance of 3, 4, 5, and 6 year olds on seven motor performance test items. Although significant age and sex differences were found on most of the motor tests, it appears that age generally was related more to performance than was gender. Overall, change with age was fairly linear except perhaps for balancing and a general tapering in improvement in the 5 to 6 year old category. On the tests of throwing and balancing, gender was as important as age, or more so, in its relationship to performance. Boys were superior to girls at all ages on the throwing tests; girls were superior to boys at age 6 on the Balance test. Gender differences of a lesser magnitude were found on the Speed Run and Standing Long Jump tests with the performance of boys generally being superior to the performance of girls. Thus, it appears that gender differences in motor performance occur as early as the preschool years. Interestingly, except for the Balance test, on all the tests the 3 and 4 year old boys performed similarly and the 5 and 6 year old boys performed similarly. For the girls there were more significant differences from year to year in performance, with the data generally indicating at least three distinct skill groups for girls from age 3 to 6.     

Motor Performance of Girls Age 6 to 14 Years

Group achievement scores for elementary school girls for the 30-yard run, the standing broad jump and the overarm throw are presented to add to the limited information now available on children in the first three grades (ages 6 through 9 years). Means and standard deviations are reported for grades 1 through 8 and for ages 6 through 14 years. Reliabilities of within-day scores are reported. Correlations of year-to-year scores and of first-grade scores with those of grades 3 through 5 show that individuals tend to remain in the same relative position within the group during the elementary school years. This paper adds to present knowledge of motor performance of elementary school children by reporting observations derived from achievement scores of girls during a five-year period.     

Interlimb Skill Ability in Motor Skill Performance

Abstract

Thirty-eight male college freshmen continuously threw a softball at a 4′x4′ target for 30 sec. and also kicked a soccer ball at a 4′x4′ target for the game length of time. The subjects were tested using their preferred and nonpreferred arms and legs.

Five of the six correlations, including preferred arm and nonpreferred arm, preferred leg and nonpreferred leg, preferred arm and preferred leg, nonpreferred arm and nonpreferred leg, and preferred arm and nonpreferred leg, were positive, low, but significant. However, when analyzed for generality and specificity factors of performance, the highest generality (29 percent) was obtained when comparing leg performance. There is evidence of strong specificity in limb performance, and thus more support for a specificity theory of learning and performance.     

Race and Gender Differences in Children's Socialization into Sport

Abstract

In order to determine whether race and gender differences occurred in children's socialization into sport, a fixed alternative questionnaire was administered to 193 males (46 black and 147 white) and 222 females (69 black and 153 white) between the ages of 9 and 12 years. Results from several discriminant function analyses indicated that white children are more influenced by specific agents of socialization while black children are more influenced by situational or contextual variables, such as opportunity set and values toward sport. Gender differences appear to be a function of same-sex agents of socialization. However, those agents which most influence white children are not those that most influence black children.     

Precision Knowledge of Results and Motor Performance: Relationship to Age

In motor skill performance and retention the complexity of knowledge of results should interact with the child's processing rate. This rate has been demonstrated to increase with age. Two experiments were designed to assess this hypothesis. In Experiment 1, 30 7-year-old and 30 10-year-old boys were randomly assigned within age level to three knowledge of results (KR) conditions: no KR, general KR, and precise KR. Performance was assessed on a vertical positioning task at two angles, 60° and 100°, for 10 performance trials. The preciseness of KR interacted with age and the degree of the angle, indicating that at the more difficult angle (60°) preciseness may have been detrimental to the performance of the 7-year-olds but beneficial to the 10-year-olds. At the easier angle (100°), precise KR improved performance for both age groups. In Experiment 2, 27 second-grade and 27 fourth-grade children were randomly assigned within age groups to the same three levels of KR preciseness. A horizontal curvilinear positioning task was used as the motor task and subjects were given 40 acquisition and 19 KR withdrawal trials. Results suggested that while KR was better than no KR during learning, the level of KR preciseness was of minor importance. However, the preciseness of KR during acquisition was of considerable value after KR was withdrawn (retention phase). The older children were able to use more precise KR to form a perceptual trace more resistant to forgetting, while the younger children were unable to use the additional information contained in precise KR.     

Gender Differences in Children's Throwing Performance: Biology and Environment

Abstract

This study evaluated the influence of biological and environmental variables on the differences between the throwing performance of 5-year-old girls and boys. A total of 100 children (48 girls, 52 boys) were tested on throwing for distance and rated on two components of throwing form—trunk rotation, and foot action. Children were evaluated on eight biological characteristics—height, weight, body mass index, ponderal index, sum of four skinfolds, body diameters, arm and leg girths, and somatotypes—and four environmental characteristics—older brother, older sister, presence of adult male, and playing with older children. Results indicated that boys threw farther than girls and exhibited more mature form. Boys had greater joint diameters than girls, a smaller sum of four skinfolds, and more estimated arm muscle. Boys were more likely to play regularly with older children. Girls' throwing performance was only 57% that of boys, but when throwing was adjusted for a linear composite of biological variables, girls' throwing performance increased to 69% of boys'. Thus, while the differences in most motor performance tasks between boys and girls prior to puberty have been attributed to environmental factors, some of the differences in throwing performance appears to reflect biological characteristics, even as early as 5 years of age.     

Comparison of Motor Ability,New Motor Skill Learning,and Adjustment to a Rearranged Visual Field

Abstract

The ability of 48 college women to adjust hand-eye coordination in a rearranged visual field was compared with ability to learn a new motor skill and with present level of motor ability. The measuring instruments utilized included the Scott motor ability test, Moody's new motor skill learning test, and a variation of the mirror-box test of Held and Gottlieb. Subjects were exposed for one minute to each of four experimental treatments—moving chessmen and throwing a ball performed both while wearing prism-glasses and without wearing these glasses. Subjects received one treatment per day, two days per week; the treatments were repeated in the same order and sequence, making a total of eight experimental sessions. The findings did not justify the conclusion that a relationship exists between motor ability or new motor skill learning and ability to adjust to a rearranged visual field. Wearing prism-glasses did not result in a consistent amount of visual rearrangement with each subject.     

Contextual Factors and Age Group Differences in Coincidence-Anticipation Performance

Abstract

Age group differences in the direction of anticipatory motor responses may be attributable to the increased susceptibility of young children to contextual factors. That is, their performances on a given trial may be influenced by the stimulus speed presented in the previous trial. Mixed-sex groups of 8–9 year-olds and adults were given 3 blocks of 18 coincidence-anticipation trials each in a counterbalanced design. One block contained stimulus speeds of 1, 3, or 5 MPH, another speeds of 3, 5, or 7 MPH, and a third speeds of 5, 7, or 9 MPH, so that the 5 MPH speed was common to all blocks. An age group by sex by testing order by trial block ANOVA of constant error on the 5 MPH trials indicated that trial block was a significant factor within an age group by block interaction. Mean scores showed that the children responded very early in the 5–7–9 MPH block to the 5 MPH stimuli while the adults did not. Testing order was also a significant factor: subjects in the 1–3–5, 5–7–9, 3–5–7 MPH order performed with significantly greater directional error. While the later finding may indicate contextual factors influenced performance, there is no strong evidence that contextual factors differentially affected the age groups.     

幼儿跑步能力差异性的生物力学分析

为了找到幼儿由走向跑的学习过程中不同阶段的步态特征,为指导幼儿形成正确的跑步姿势和运动康复提供依据,以初步具有跑步能力的2岁左右的幼儿为研究对象,采用影像分析技术,对幼儿的跑步姿态进行平面定点测量。研究发现：幼儿步态特征同成人存在明显区别,支撑阶段所占的比例远大于腾空阶段;从走向跑的学习存在一个过渡阶段,该阶段跑步时没有双脚同时离地的腾空阶段。     

The Applicability of Item Response Theory to Tests of Motor Behavior

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to examine how young children interact in the context of learning fundamental motor skills. Twenty-nine preschool children were observed during a period of six consecutive months while they were participating in their daily motor skills program. Fieldwork research methodology was used and data were collected using participant observation techniques. During data analysis, emerging patterns were identified and cross-referenced against data collected from other sources (triangulation). Girls were found to interact in a cooperative, caring, and sharing manner. Bays were found to interact in a competitive, individualized, and egocentric manner. A cultural pattern of cooperative interaction among Asian children was found. In addition, both boys and girls tried to maintain their gender style of interaction when dealing with the opposite sex. This study reveals several aspects of the social environment that may need to be considered when teaching motor skills to young children.     

不同运动项目对儿童感觉统合能力提升效果的研究

为推进感觉统合训练与体育运动的融合,该文采用文献资料法和归纳综合法,阐述了感觉统合理论,感觉统合失调的概念、原因、表现、危害和发生率,感觉统合训练的概况,整理分析了不同运动项目对儿童感觉统合能力的促进效果及对儿童身体素质的影响。结果表明,不同运动项目对感觉统合能力各个维度的改善各有侧重,其中花样跳绳运动的改善效果最佳,运动融合感统训练的改善效果要优于单纯进行运动或感统训练,应加强青少年儿童体育工作的宣传和引导。     

体育游戏对孤独症儿童沟通行为影响的个案研究

旨在探讨体育游戏对孤独症儿童沟通行为的影响。采用A-B-A实验设计对3名孤独症儿童沟通行为进行体育游戏干预,以社交沟通为主线创设体育游戏,运用示范、辅助、强化等多种策略促进沟通。结果表明：经过12周体育游戏的密集干预,3名孤独症儿童主动沟通行为次数显著增加,沟通技能有所提高。由此得出体育游戏对部分孤独症儿童沟通行为的改善有积极的促进作用。