Sleep management and the performance of eight sailors in the Tour de France à la voile yacht race

We observed how sailors manage their sleep and alertness before and during competition in a long-haul yacht race. Global performance of the teams was also recorded. We assessed eight sailors aged 21-30 years, split into four teams, who competed in the Tour de France à la Voile 2002 yacht race. Two phases of the race were examined: two legs in both the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Sleep length, sleep debt, and sleepiness before competition and on board during the race were assessed using ambulatory polysomnography. Intermediate and final rankings were considered as a reflection of performance. A significant correlation was observed between the sleep debt before competition and the total sleep time on board during the Atlantic legs. The greater the sleep debt, the more sleepy the participants were. During the Mediterranean legs, almost all the sailors were deprived of sleep and slept during the daytime competitions. We observed that the final ranking in the race related to the sleep management strategy of the participants. In extreme competitive conditions, the effect of a good night's sleep before competition on performance is important. The strategy of the winners was to get sufficient sleep before each leg so as to be the most alert and efficient during the race.     

Biological movement variability during the sprint start: performance enhancement or hindrance?

In the current study, we quantified biological movement variability on the start and early acceleration phase of sprinting. Ten male athletes aged 17-23 years (100-m personal best: 10.87 +/- 0.36s) performed four 10-m sprints. Two 250-Hz cameras recorded the sagittal plane action to obtain the two-dimensional kinematics of the block start and initial strides from subsequent manually digitized APAS motion analysis. Infra-red timing lights (80Hz) were used to measure the 10-m sprinting times. The coefficient of variation (CV%) calculation was adjusted to separate biological movement variability (BCV%) from estimates of variability induced by technological error (SEM%) for each individual sprinter and measure. Pearson's product-moment correlation and linear regression analysis were used to establish relationships between measures of BCV% and 10-m sprint start performance (best 10-m time) or 10-m sprint start performance consistency (10-m time BCV%) using SPSS version 12.0. Measurement error markedly inflated traditional measures of movement variability (CV%) by up to 72%. Variability in task outcome measures was considerably lower than that observed in joint rotation velocities. Consistent generation of high horizontal velocity out of the blocks led to more stable and faster starting strides.     

Fitness testing: how do students make sense of the gender disparities?

The ways in which students make sense of the gendered fitness expectations found in a norm-referenced fitness testing program (i.e. President's challenge physical fitness test) were the focus of this study. Participants were 18 fifth grade students who completed fitness tests in their physical education classes. They were interviewed using a standardized, open-ended protocol designed to elicit their perceptions of the fitness test. Three salient themes emerged from the data: (1) students used notions of essentialism and social construction to explain gender differences; (2) students observed their peers’ performances through gendered lenses; and (3) students provided suggestions for change. Based on the findings from this study, researchers and practitioners may begin to recognize the ways in which fitness testing affects how students socially construct ideologies about fitness, ability and their bodies.     

Saint or Sinner?: A Reconsideration of the Career of Prince Alexandre de Merode,Chair of the International Olympic Committee's Medical Commission, 1967–2002

This article explores the role of Prince Alexandre de Merode in heading the IOC's fight against drugs from the 1960s to 2002. History has not served de Merode very well. He has been presented in simplistic ways that emerge from context rather than evidence – as either a saint or a sinner. IOC-sanctioned accounts cast him inthe mould of the saint: a moral and intelligent man who saved sports from doping. In contrast, sports academics have tended to portray him as a sinner: an ineffectual leader who did not develop either the testing systems or the punishments required to prevent doping and who deliberately concealed evidence of high-profile doping cases. This article assesses both representations before presenting information to support a richer and more complicated interpretation.     

Match running performance fluctuations in elite soccer: Indicative of fatigue,pacing or situational influences?

Abstract

The aims of this study were to: (1) quantify match running performance in 5-min periods to determine if players fatigue or modulate high-intensity running according to a pacing strategy, and (2) examine factors impacting high-intensity running such as score line, match importance and the introduction of substitutes. All players were analysed using a computerised tracking system. Maintaining ‘high’ levels of activity in the first half resulted in a 12% reduction (P < 0.01) in the second half for high-intensity running (effect size [ES]: 0.8), while no changes were observed in ‘moderate’ and ‘low’ groups (ES: 0.0–0.2). The ‘high’ group covered less (P < 0.01) high-intensity running in the initial 10-min of the second versus first half (ES: 0.6–0.7), but this was not observed in ‘moderate’ and ‘low’ groups (ES: 0.2–0.4). After the most intense periods, players demonstrated an 8% drop in high-intensity running (P < 0.05) compared to the match average (ES: 0.2) and this persisted for 5-min before recovering. Players covered similar high-intensity running distances in matches with differing score lines but position-specific trends indicated central defenders covered 17% less (P < 0.01) and attackers 15% more high-intensity running during matches that were heavily won versus lost (ES: 0.9). High-intensity running distances were comparable in matches of differing importance, but between-half trends indicated that only declines (P < 0.01) occurred in the second half of critical matches (ES: 0.2). Substitutes covered 15% more (P < 0.01) high-intensity running versus the same time period when completing a full match (ES: 0.5). The data demonstrate that high-intensity running in the second half is impacted by the activity of the first half and is reduced for 5-min after intense periods. High-intensity running is also influenced by score line and substitutions but not match importance. More research is warranted to establish if fluctuations in match running performance are primarily a consequence of fatigue, pacing or tactical and situational influences.     

Hooligans,Casuals, Independents: Decivilisation or Rationalisation of the Activity?

If there is one phenomenon which highlights the lack of role distance of certain sport actors, it is obviously hooliganism. In the mid-1980s, Norbert Elias and Eric Dunning became interested in the role played by modern sports in the ‘civilising process’ and, analysing the violence of sport crowds, introduced a culturalist interpretation of the actions. They were considered to be the work of members of the ‘rough working class’, who were less advanced in the ‘civilising process’ and had still not achieved sufficient self-control. In these groups, characterised by social functioning in the form of a segmentary bond, violence was thought to be a traditional way of resolving conflicts, a significant aspect and essential part of their ethos. This is an over-determined interpretation of the violence of sports crowds which naturalises and socialises this violence. This vision poses a problem, that of the negation of any logic on the part of the actors involved. This viewpoint leads us to consider violence as a social product and a ‘practical accomplishment’, the result of the way in which supporters interpret and live in the world that surrounds them, and, as such, it is the individual and collective motives and purposes that should be investigated.     

Evaluation of the "under-21 rule": do young adult soccer players benefit?

Young adult soccer players often encounter difficulty progressing from youth competition to being regularly selected for high-level, open-age competition. In an attempt to increase the playing opportunities of semi-professional and amateur under-21 players in first teams, the Royal Belgian Football Association required national division teams to include at least two players younger than 21 in their match selection (under-21 rule). Over four seasons, the following variables were analysed across 2138 semi-professional and amateur soccer players aged 16-39 years: (1) the number of times a player was selected to be in the first team squad; (2) the number of times a player was selected to play in the starting line-up; and (3) the number of minutes played. Chi-square analysis demonstrated that second and third division teams had complied with the new selection regulations. However, two-way analysis of variance of individual player data revealed no increase in the number of playing minutes in the under-21 group. It would appear that many teams had complied with the new regulations by selecting young players as substitutes. The results highlight the difficulties that talented young soccer players experience progressing from youth to senior competition. We conclude that the rule imposed by the Royal Belgian Football Association has failed to improve the playing opportunities of young adult soccer players. Alternative strategies for increasing playing opportunities for young talented players are required.     

Choice of sprint start performance measure affects the performance-based ranking within a group of sprinters: which is the most appropriate measure?

Sprint start performance has previously been quantified using several different measures. This study aimed to identify whether different measures could influence the performance-based ranking within a group of 12 sprinters, and if so, to identify the most appropriate measure. None of the 10 performance measures ranked all sprinters in the same order; Spearman's rho correlations between different block phase measures ranged from 0.50 to 0.94, and between block phase measures and those obtained beyond block exit from 0.66 to 0.85. Based on the consideration of what each measure quantifies, normalised average horizontal external power was identified as the most appropriate, incorporating both block velocity and the time spent producing this velocity. The accuracy with which these data could be obtained in an externally valid field setting was assessed against force platform criterion data. For an athlete producing 678 +/- 40 W of block power, a carefully set-up manual high-speed video analysis protocol produced systematic and random errors of +5 Wand +/- 24 W, respectively. Since the choice of performance measure could affect the conclusions drawn from a technique analysis, for example the success of an intervention, it is proposed that external power is used to quantify start performance.     

Choice of sprint start performance measure affects the performance-based ranking within a group of sprinters: which is the most appropriate measure?

Sprint start performance has previously been quantified using several different measures. This study aimed to identify whether different measures could influence the performance-based ranking within a group of 12 sprinters, and if so, to identify the most appropriate measure. None of the 10 performance measures ranked all sprinters in the same order; Spearman's rho correlations between different block phase measures ranged from 0.50 to 0.94, and between block phase measures and those obtained beyond block exit from 0.66 to 0.85. Based on the consideration of what each measure quantifies, normalised average horizontal external power was identified as the most appropriate, incorporating both block velocity and the time spent producing this velocity. The accuracy with which these data could be obtained in an externally valid field setting was assessed against force platform criterion data. For an athlete producing 678 ± 40 W of block power, a carefully set-up manual high-speed video analysis protocol produced systematic and random errors of +5 W and ± 24 W, respectively. Since the choice of performance measure could affect the conclusions drawn from a technique analysis, for example the success of an intervention, it is proposed that external power is used to quantify start performance.     

“Sport for Development” in developing countries: The case of the Vilas Olímpicas do Rio de Janeiro

The benefits of sport for general social outcomes has permeated sport policy in Brazil since the beginning of the twentieth century, but recently the jargon of “development through sport” is more overtly informing public policy and government action in this field. Despite increased uptake of the positive discourse of “sport as a development tool”, the reality for government-funded and -run “sport for development” programs is one far removed from enjoying the attention and financial investment needed to reach their stated development goals. This paper focuses on one such program: the Vilas Olímpicas do Rio de Janeiro. When analysing the specific matters associated with the management of this program three themes were identified that encapsulate the main issues that emerged during the analysis: partnerships, conflicting aims, and community involvement. These themes are analysed in light of the literature that discusses the application of “sport for development” programs worldwide and we conclude with some questions on the applicability of well-defined frameworks and approaches to such programs when these programs themselves tend to operate in very ill-defined and unstable environments.     

The ecological validity of laboratory cycling: Does body size explain the difference between laboratory- and field-based cycling performance?

Previous researchers have identified significant differences between laboratory and road cycling performances. To establish the ecological validity of laboratory time-trial cycling performances, the causes of such differences should be understood. Hence, the purpose of the present study was to quantify differences between laboratory- and road-based time-trial cycling and to establish to what extent body size [mass (m) and height (h)] may help to explain such differences. Twenty-three male competitive, but non-elite, cyclists completed two 25 mile time-trials, one in the laboratory using an air-braked ergometer (Kingcycle) and the other outdoors on a local road course over relatively flat terrain. Although laboratory speed was a reasonably strong predictor of road speed (R2 = 69.3%), a significant 4% difference (P < 0.001) in cycling speed was identified (laboratory vs. road speed: 40.4 +/- 3.02 vs. 38.7 +/- 3.55 km x h(-1); mean +/- s). When linear regression was used to predict these differences (Diff) in cycling speeds, the following equation was obtained: Diff (km x h(-1)) = 24.9 - 0.0969 x m - 10.7 x h, R2 = 52.1% and the standard deviation of residuals about the fitted regression line = 1.428 (km . h-1). The difference between road and laboratory cycling speeds (km x h(-1)) was found to be minimal for small individuals (mass = 65 kg and height = 1.738 m) but larger riders would appear to benefit from the fixed resistance in the laboratory compared with the progressively increasing drag due to increased body size that would be experienced in the field. This difference was found to be proportional to the cyclists' body surface area that we speculate might be associated with the cyclists' frontal surface area.     

Zinedine Zidane’s return to the land of his ancestors: politics,diplomacy or something else?

Zinedine Zidane was one of the best players of the late 1990s and the early 2000s. His achievements as a soccer player are well known and are documented in a few well-written biographies. Therefore, this essay will focus on lesser-known aspects of his life, such as charity, humanitarian work and, to some degree, diplomacy. During his short and historic visit to Algeria in 2006, he was successful in improving Franco–Algerian relations considerably, something that many politicians had failed to achieve in previous decades.     

Communicating the need for a new field of dreams: If we don’t rebuild it will they go?

Convincing the public to finance a stadium is often contentious and even more so in smaller communities with limited funding options. In this case study of Cobb Field, the city of Billings, Montana must address the disrepair of its municipally owned baseball stadium. The field is used by a minor league professional baseball team, two American Legion teams, and a university program. Cobb Field is in violation of the rules that govern minor league professional baseball, and must seek waivers each year to allow the professional team to remain. As a result, community leaders are concerned the team could relocate. The city council wants a new stadium, but must seek approval for a tax increase from a community that has recently rejected levies for schools, libraries, and museums. Students should ponder what public relations strategies are available to the supporters of a new stadium while considering the needs, wants, and desires of the various stakeholders involved.