Testing Predictive Models of Technology Integration in Mexico and the United States

ABSTRACT

Data from Mexico City, Mexico (N = 978) and from Texas, USA (N = 932) were used to test the predictive validity of the teacher professional development component of the Will, Skill, Tool Model of Technology Integration in a cross-cultural context. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the model. Analyses of these data yielded positive results for the model's validity and reliability, with more than 90% of the variance in classroom technology integration found to be attributable to a linear combination of a teacher's attitude or Will, technology proficiency or Skill, and access to technology Tools. Results also showed a differential effect of predictors on integration, depending on the teacher's stage of technology adoption: At lower stages Tool access appears to be the best predictor; whereas, at higher stages Skill appears to be the best predictor. At the highest stage of adoption Will may replace Skill as the best technology integration predictor. Collective findings regarding the orderings of integration predictors shed light on alternative theoretical views of technology integration. Findings tend to support the view of technology integration as a step-wise, sequential, developmental process, rather than the process of eliminating external and internal barriers that impede the full integration of technology into a classroom teaching/learning environment.     

Understanding the relationship between levels of mobile technology use in high school physics classrooms and the learning outcome

Mobile technology has been increasingly adopted in science education. We generally assume that more innovative use of mobile technology leads to a greater learning outcome. Yet, there is a lack of empirical research to support this assumption. To fill in the gap, we drew upon data from 803 high school students who had used mobile devices for five months in physics classrooms. Using the SAMR model (ie, Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and Redefinition), we distinguished their uses into two levels: Substitution (replacing traditional instructional approach with mobile technology without functional improvement), and augmentation (enhancing instruction with affordances provided by mobile technology). Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling analysis, we found that the augmentation level of use was positively correlated with the physics learning outcome, but the substitution level of use was not. We further identified four sub-types of uses within the augmentation level. We found that after-school remediating activities and student–teacher displaying activities were positively correlated with student physics achievement, but teacher-assigned activities had no significant correlation and learning aid activities had a negative correlation with the learning outcome. This study provided empirical evidence to support the assumption that a higher level of mobile technology use may be related to a greater learning outcome and that the impact of mobile technology may be determined by multiple factors such as who initiates the use and whether the use enhances or distracts students' knowledge construction.     

Effects of Classroom Technology Policies on Students' Perceptions of Instructors: What is Your Syllabus Saying about You?

The technology policies included on instructors' syllabi vary greatly and, in some cases, may unfavorably influence students' perceptions of the instructor. To examine this hypothesis, we randomly assigned college students enrolled in psychology courses at two different institutions (N = 163) to groups in which they viewed different syllabi for a community psychology course. The syllabi varied by the hypothetical instructor's technology policy (encouraging of appropriate technology use in the classroom, discouraging of all technology use, or a mixture of both) and instructor gender. Results showed that students rated instructors similarly on the Competency/Communication factor across all conditions but rated them significantly lower on the Rapport factor when the syllabus included a discouraging technology policy. Rapport ratings were also associated with students' self-reported dependence on technology. High instructor Rapport was associated with high levels of students' technology dependency in the encouraging technology policy condition (r = .29, p < .05), but low levels of technology dependency in the discouraging condition (r = ?.31, p < .05). Our findings suggest that if instructors include technology policies on their syllabi that restrict inappropriate technology use, they should also indicate situations in which technology use is appropriate.     

Understanding factors associated with teacher‐directed student use of technology in elementary classrooms: A structural equation modeling approach

Analyses presented here are secondary data analyses of the Use, Support and Effect of Instructional Technology study aimed at identifying predictors of teacher‐directed student use of technology (TDS) in elementary classrooms. Using data from a convenience sample of 1040 teachers nested within 81 schools in 21 Massachusetts' school districts, researchers developed a teacher‐level structural equation modeling for TDS depicting relationships between and among factors associated with TDS. Researchers relied on diffusion and adoption theories as well as prior empirical evidence to specify the hypothetical model. Evidence presented here suggests that the strongest predictors of TDS are as follows: (1) teachers' experience with technology, (2) belief that technology is beneficial to meet instructional goals, (3) perceived importance of technology for teaching and that (4) experiencing obstacles with the integration of technology appears to be one deterrent to teachers using technology in the classroom. The most important finding reported here is that two of the most important factors in increasing TDS are teachers' beliefs about the benefits of technology and perceived importance of technology for teaching.     

Inquiry-Based Lessons That Integrate Technology: Their Development and Evaluation in Elementary Mathematics Teacher Education

Technology-enhanced mathematics tasks were introduced to elementary pre-service candidates (n = 84) and in-service teachers (n = 38), who then, either in partners or small groups, created and taught inquiry-based lessons incorporating technology, with individual reflections. The lessons were coded using the following criteria: (a) The students themselves used the technology for inquiry learning, (b) technology was integral to the learning task, (c) the lesson focused on mathematics concepts—not the technology, and (d) the task would have been more difficult to accomplish without the technology. The lesson analysis revealed that, after instruction on inquiry learning and technology integration, each group achieved a high level of proficiency using these criteria. Further, the analysis assisted the instructors in identifying issues and concerns regarding implementation of technology in elementary mathematics instruction.     

Information, cooperation, and the blurring of boundaries – technology transfer in German and American discourses

The aim of this paper is to examine changing discursive conceptualizations of technology transfer mechanisms for speeding up innovation in Germany and the US since World War II with particular emphasis on universities. According to our analysis, the concepts of technology transfer are getting more and more complex, taking off from a linear model of innovation to a more complex model allowing for networking and entrepreneurial activities of the universities themselves. We suggest that the discourses in both countries can be framed employing three ideal-typical models: the information and documentation model, the cooperation model, and the blurring of boundaries model. In addition to these similarities, we also discuss differences that can be traced back to broader political cultures in which technology transfer is embedded. Both similarities and differences allow for a comparative perspective which is not limited to the countries analyzed here.     

Nagging,noobs and new tricks – students’ perceptions of school as a context for digital technology use

While digital technology is an integral feature of contemporary education, schools are often presumed to constrain and compromise students’ uses of technology. This paper investigates students’ experiences of school as a context for digital technology use. Drawing upon survey data from three Australian secondary schools (n = 1174), this paper considers the various ways in which students use digital devices and applications “in school” and “for school”. After highlighting trends and differences across a range of digital devices and practices, the paper explores the ways in which students perceive school as a limiting and/or enabling setting for technology use. The findings point to a number of ways that schools act to extend as well as curtail student engagement with technology. This paper concludes by considering the possible ways that schools might work to further support and/or enhance students’ technology experiences.     

The status of training and performance research in the AECT journals

“HPT has had a significant impact on the instructional design and technology field.” Cynthia Conn is working on her Ph.D. in educational technology at the University of Northern Colorado Jacqueline Gitonga is currently working on her Ph.D. in human resource education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her research interests are in training and development, instructional design and human performance technology.     

Double Visions: Educational Technology in Standards and Assessments for Science and Mathematics

For educational technology integration in content disciplines to succeed, teachers and teacher educators need clear standards delineating why, how, where, and how much educational technology they should include in their teaching. This paper examines the visions offered by current science, mathematics, and educational technology standards for educational technology integration in K-12 schools. Since national assessments exert a profound influence on what teachers and students choose to teach and learn, the vision of educational technology use supported by national assessments is also examined. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Standards (NCTM, 2000. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Retrieved April 6, 2002 from http://standards.nctm.org), the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council (NRC) 1996. National Science Education Standards. Available at http://books.nap.edu/catalog/4962.html), and the National Educational Technology Standards (International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) 2000. National Educational Technology Standards for Students: Connecting Curriculum and Technology, ISTE, Eugene, Oregon) provide different visions of educational technology use in the classroom. In addition, the current technology use policies for national assessments in science and mathematics, in particular the college admission tests (ACT, SAT I and SAT II subject area tests), Advanced Placement (AP) course assessments, and the Praxis Series assessments indicate that while mathematics assessments often recommend or require the use of educational technology, few science assessments permit the use of educational technology by students. Recommendations are offered for science educators regarding teacher preparation for the technology-rich classrooms of the future.     

Advanced distance education technology and hands-on science

Distance education technology can be used to increase the teaching of science in schools. However, the use of the technology must be carefully monitored. This paper describes the general use of 2-way video/2-way audio technology to link three remote sites and a studio. To evaluate the instructiors' and participants' use of this technology, video recordings ofall 11 (2-hour) broadcasts were reviewed. In general, the instructors were able to conduct a semester long hands-on science course, however, there were many science teaching techniques that had to be altered for this technology. When this technology is used for hands-on science, the hardware itself must be improved so that continuous interaction can take place between the studio and all remote sites. Science topics and activities may prove to be one of thebest fields to present with the technology, because of the practical lab based nature of science. Hands-on science activities seem to lessen the feeling of distance between remote sites and the studio.     

The Care of Our Hybrid Selves: Towards a Concept of Bildung For Digital Times

This article draws on the work of Michel Foucault to develop a concept of Bildung for our digital times. It first shows how Foucault's concept of disciplinary power challenges the traditional Bildung‐ideal of autonomy. It then goes on to elaborate Foucault's concepts of power, freedom and self‐practices, which can all be extended to the domain of technology use: just as we can never escape from power relations, we cannot purify ourselves from technology, and a clear distinction between humans and technologies is illusory at best. This does not imply an elimination of freedom, however, because, just as with power, freedom does not consist of an absence of external influences, but the practice of coping with these influences. Contemporary Bildung can therefore be characterized as what Steven Dorrestijn calls a care of our hybrid selves, which includes critical skills, like attentional control. Such skills do not stand in opposition to digital technology, however, but in relation to it and must be cultivated through extensive training. Furthermore, while educational initiatives play a vital role in this training process, we must not neglect students’ own technological self‐practices. Exploring such practices allows us to analyse the technology‐related critiques that already exist in everyday practice.     

Nature of Technology: Implications for design,development, and enactment of technological tools in school science classrooms

This position paper provides a theory-based explanation informed by philosophy of technology (PoT) of the recurrent documented patterns often associated with attempts to enact technology-supported, inquiry-based approaches in precollege science classrooms. Understandings derived from the history of technological development in other domains (e.g. medicine, transportation, and warfare) reveal numerous parallels that help to explain these recurrent patterns. Historical analyses of major technologies reveal a conglomerate of factors that interact to produce benefits, as well as intended and unintended consequences. On a macro-scale, PoT facilitates understandings of how technologies interact and are impacted by individuals, society, institutions, economy, politics, and culture. At the micro-level, and most relevant to science education, PoT engages the inherent nature of technology along a number of key dimensions: role of culture and values, notions of technological progression, technology as part of systems, technological diffusion, technology as a fix, and the notions of expertise. Overall, the present analysis has implications for the design, development, implementation, and adoption of technological tools for use in precollege science education, and highlights the role of technology as both artifact and process.     

The science/technology interaction: Implications for science literacy

Science literacy includes understanding technology. This raises questions about the role of technology in science education as well as in general education. To explore these questions, this article begins with a brief history of technology education as it relates to science education and discusses how new conceptions of science and technological literacy are moving beyond the dichotomies that formerly characterized the relationship between science and technology education. It describes how Benchmarks for Science Literacy, the National Science Education Standards, and the Standards for Technological Literacy have been making a case for introducing technology studies into general education. Examples of specific technological concepts fundamental for science literacy are provided. Using one example from the design of structures, the article examines how understanding about design (i. e., understanding constraints, trade‐offs, and failures) is relevant to science literacy. This example also raises teaching and learning issues, including the extent to which technology‐based activities can address scientific and technological concepts. The article also examines how research can provide guides for potential interactions between science and technology and concludes with reflections on the changes needed, such as the creation of curriculum models that establish fruitful interactions between science and technology education, for students to attain an understanding of technology. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 38: 715–729, 2001     

Aspiring School Administrators' Perceived Ability to Meet Technology Standards and Technological Needs for Professional Development

The merits of technology in general and of educational technology specifically are well documented. The use of educational technology has been shown to improve teaching and learning and the overall educational quality of schools. However, the successful integration of educational technology in schools hinges on school administrators' technology leadership abilities. The purpose of this study was to investigate aspiring school administrators' perceived ability to meet technology standards established by ISTE Standards for Administrators (formerly known as the NETS·A) and to determine which standards they wished to pursue for future professional development. Utilizing the ISTE Standards–A as a framework, a survey was created to decipher how aspiring school administrators perceived their own abilities to become leaders with foundational technology leadership skills. The findings showed that (a) the aspiring school administrators were more likely to indicate a need for professional development in technology utilization to meet the standards than they were to indicate their perceived current competence in meeting the technology standards and effectively utilizing technology in their schools; (b) when interests were examined by race, African American aspiring school administrators were more interested in pursuing professional development to enhance their abilities to perform the tasks than were Caucasian aspiring school administrators; and (c) there was a statistically significant difference between aspiring school administrators' average Perception and Interest scores. It appeared that in general, the participants perceived a greater need for professional development in technology standards than their perceived current ability to perform the standards.     

Selwyn,Neil (2011) Education and technology Continuum (London SE1 & New York) isbn 978‐1‐4411‐5036‐3 197 pp £22.99 http://www.continuumbooks.com/books/detail.aspx?BookId=158591&SubjectId=940

Education and technology: Key issues and debates offers an informed and carefully argued perspective on the role of information technology in education, adopting historical and critical perspectives in its attempt to produce a shift towards a more evidence‐based approach. If the book is relevant to you, I recommend that you buy a copy. Michael Thomas     

Ribble,Mike (2011) Digital citizenship in schools ISTE & Eurospan (London) isbn 978‐1‐56484‐301‐2 166 pp $39.95 ($27.97 to members) http://www.iste.org/store/product.aspx?ID=2111

This interesting book, addressed to school teachers and technology leaders, aims to build awareness of what are inappropriate behaviours in technology use and why they are potentially dangerous. Digital citizenship—the application of norms for productive and appropriate technology use—is relevant to all in our technology‐rich society, and should be an integral part of technology education. If this book is likely to be relevant to you, I recommend you borrow a copy. Giuliana Dettori     

A longitudinal study on boys’ and girls’ career aspirations and interest in technology

Background: More young people, boys and girls, are needed in technical studies and professions, as the relative number of students in technology-related studies has been decreasing in most industrialised countries. To overcome this decrease several countries implemented mandatory technology classes in the curriculum of secondary education.

Purpose: This study has two goals: exploring the evolution of pupils’ interest during the year(s) they attend the mandatory technology classes and exploring determining characteristics for differences in boys’ and girls’ attitude change over time.

Sample: This study focuses on data gathered in the first and second grade of the first cycle in general secondary education in the North region of Belgium, Flanders. In a first stage we selected a good representation of geographically spread schools (n = 20), from which over 1300 students participated.

Design and methods: A longitudinal study with eight measurement occasions spread over the course of two years is presented in order to capture the evolution of students’ attitudes, making use of a multilevel growth model analysis.

Results: The results show that students’ interest in technology decreases over time, although at the end of each grade interest is increasing again. Boys’ and girls’ interest in technology also evolves a little different in the first cycle of secondary education. For career aspirations we didn’t see any significant difference between boys and girls. Boys’ and girls’ aspirations decrease over time with a little increase by the end of the second grade. Students with a more technological curriculum also have more career aspirations in the field of technology than their peers with other curricula. Although students’ perceptions about technology as a subject for boys and girls are largely stable.

Conclusions: The evolution of students’ attitude is far from linear, this strengthens us in the choice for a more complex analysis model and the choice for more measuring points than only at the beginning and the end when analysing students’ attitudes towards technology. With this research we found that students interest and aspirations in the field of technology are not stable and do change in the first cycle of secondary education. Overall, we can conclude that if the goal of technology education at school maintains to promote ‘a larger number of students in technological oriented studies and professions’, there is still much to do.     

Faculty integration of technology in teacher preparation: outcomes of a development model

This article reports on a faculty development model that uses a variety of approaches and strategies to help faculty restructure their curricula and effectively model technology integration for their students. A multifaceted model, funded in part by the Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers to Use Technology (PT3) initiative, was implemented at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. The model included training, technical and collegial support, access, and incentives. Questionnaires and qualitative data indicated substantive changes in faculty expectations and assumptions regarding technology as well as increases in faculty and student technology skills and the degree to which faculty members integrate technology into their curricula. The model helped to facilitate the collaborative efforts of a cadre of faculty to model and integrate technology throughout their teacher preparation programs.     

Application of behavioral technology to small group discussion with university students

Tokens were given to university students in two separate experiments for participation in small group discussions. In the first experiment a multiple baseline design was used with two small groups in an educational psychology class. In the second, 10 small groups were assessed on group participation without and with a token condition. Results of the first experiment were inconclusive though favorable; the second experiment resulted in a significant difference (t=15.41; P<.001, df=77) in group participation when tokens were delivered contingent upon group participation. The results indicate that token technology can be an effective technique to increase small group participation when a variety of back-up reinforcers is offered. The results are discussed in terms of possible applications of token technology within a university setting.