Childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence victimization: A meta-analysis

BackgroundIntimate partner violence (IPV) victimization is a serious public health problem in the world. It is imperative to examine risk factors for IPV victimization.ObjectiveThis meta-analysis aimed to explore the relationship between childhood maltreatment (CM) and IPV victimization and investigate the moderating effects of gender and marital status.Participants and SettingExamination of the literature produced a sample of 56 effect sizes (N = 23,127) for review.MethodsPsycINFO, PsycArticles, EBSCO-ERIC, Medline, Google Scholar, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses databases were systematically searched until March 31, 2018. Forty-six eligible studies were included in the meta-analysis. Random effects model was used for meta-analysis of the studies.ResultsResults indicated a significant association between total CM and IPV victimization (r = .18, p < .001). Further subgroup analyses revealed that all four types of CM (childhood physical abuse, psychological abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect) were positively related to IPV victimization (r = .19, .18, .17, and .12, respectively). Moreover, the moderation analyses revealed that the association between CM and IPV victimization was stronger for dating couples than for married ones. However, this relation did not show significant difference between males and females.ConclusionsThere is an association between CM and IPV victimization, and it is moderated by marital status.     

Maternal intimate partner violence victimization and child maltreatment

There is some limited evidence of an association between maternal intimate partner victimization (IPV) and children’s experience of maltreatment. Using data from a longitudinal study, we examine whether this relationship is independent of range of potential confounders including socio-economic, familial and psychological factors. Data were taken from the 14 and 30-year follow-ups of the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (MUSP) in Australia. A subsample of 2064 mothers and children (59.0% female) whose data on maternal IPV and child maltreatment was available, were analysed. In families with maternal IPV, two in five children reported being maltreated, compared to one in five children maltreated in families without maternal IPV. Except for sexual maltreatment which was consistently higher in female offspring, there was no gender differences in experiencing different types of maltreatment in families manifesting maternal IPV. Although both males and females were at increased risk of child maltreatment in families where mothers were victimized by their male partners, male children were more likely to be emotionally maltreated. The main associations were substantially independent of measured confounders, except for father’s history of mental health problems which attenuated the association of maternal IPV victimization and male offspring’s physical abuse. Our findings confirm that there is a robust association between maternal IPV and child maltreatment. Both maternal IPV victimization and child maltreatment co-occur in a household characterized by conflict and violence. Consequences of IPV go beyond the incident and influence all family members. Efforts to reduce child maltreatment may need to address the greater level of IPV associated with the cycle of family violence.     

Intimate partner violence and child maltreatment: understanding intra- and intergenerational connections

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to assess the extent to which intimate partner violence and different forms of child maltreatment occur within and across childhood and adulthood for a high-risk group of women. METHOD: Low-income adult women were interviewed, retrospectively, regarding their experiences with intimate partner violence and child maltreatment in childhood and adulthood, and intra- and intergenerational relationships between multiple forms of family violence were identified. RESULTS: Analyses demonstrated weak to moderate associations between various forms of violence within generations. Only weak support was found for the transmission of violence hypothesis that maltreated children are more likely to grow up to maltreat their own children. Stronger support was found for the theory of learned helplessness, whereby children maltreated or witness to violence during childhood are more likely to be victimized as an adult. CONCLUSION: The results from this study suggest that interventions with children who are identified for one form of victimization should be assessed for other forms of victimization, and interventions should also address learned behaviors or beliefs associated with continued or future victimization.     

Intimate partner violence among female caregivers of children reported for child maltreatment

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence and correlates of intimate partner violence among female caregivers of children reported to child protective services. METHOD: Data were derived from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being, a national probability study of children investigated for child abuse and neglect in the United States. Caregivers were interviewed about demographic characteristics, mental health, substance use, and physical violence by a partner. RESULTS: The lifetime and past year prevalence of intimate partner violence was 44.8 and 29.0%, respectively. Caregiver major depression and history of prior reports of child maltreatment were strongly associated with violence against women. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the need for effective screening and identification of intimate partner violence in families in which child maltreatment has occurred.     

Children's experiences of companion animal maltreatment in households characterized by intimate partner violence

Cruelty toward companion animals is a well-documented, coercive tactic used by abusive partners to intimidate and control their intimate partners. Experiences of co-occurring violence are common for children living in families with intimate partner violence (IPV) and surveys show that more than half are also exposed to abuse of their pets. Given children's relationships with their pets, witnessing such abuse may be traumatic for them. Yet little is known about the prevalence and significance of this issue for children. The present study examines the experiences of children in families with co-occurring pet abuse and IPV. Using qualitative methods, 58 children ages 7–12 who were exposed to IPV were asked to describe their experiences of threats to and harm of their companion animals. Following the interviews, template analysis was employed to systematically develop codes and themes. Coding reliability was assessed using Randolph's free-marginal multirater kappa (k_free = .90). Five themes emerged from the qualitative data, the most common being children's exposure to pet abuse as a power and control tactic against their mother in the context of IPV. Other themes were animal maltreatment to discipline or punish the pet, animal cruelty by a sibling, children intervening to prevent pet abuse, and children intervening to protect the pet during a violent episode. Results indicate that children's experiences of pet abuse are multifaceted, potentially traumatic, and may involve multiple family members with diverse motives.     

Neighborhood inequality in the prevalence of reported and substantiated child maltreatment

BackgroundPrior research documents spatial concentration in the incidence of child maltreatment reported to and confirmed by Child Protective Services (CPS), but without estimates of the prevalence of such reports, the extent of CPS contact in different communities is unknown.ObjectiveTo estimate the prevalence of CPS reports during early childhood and substantiated investigations during childhood for children living in different types of neighborhoods.Participants and settingChildren who experienced CPS reports and substantiated investigations in Connecticut.MethodsThis study uses synthetic cohort life tables to estimate the cumulative risk of CPS reports before age five and substantiated CPS investigations before age 18, by neighborhood poverty rate and neighborhood racial composition.ResultsThe analysis reveals substantial stratification in the prevalence of CPS contact by the demographic characteristics of children’s residential neighborhoods. For example, while 7% of children in low-poverty neighborhoods (under 10% poor) experience a substantiated CPS investigation at some point during childhood at 2014 and 2015 rates, this risk more than doubles to 17% for their peers in moderate-poverty neighborhoods (10–20% poor) and more than triples to 26% for their peers in high-poverty neighborhoods (over 20% poor). Similar trends emerge when examining CPS reports in early childhood as well as when comparing neighborhoods with different proportions of White residents.ConclusionsCPS reports and substantiated investigations are a widespread and disproportionately experienced life event for children in poor neighborhoods and children in non-White neighborhoods.     

Differential effects of psychological maltreatment on children of mothers exposed to intimate partner violence

Objective

Psychological maltreatment (PM) is the most prevalent form of child abuse, and is the core component of most of what is considered as child maltreatment. The aim of this work was to explore differential adverse outcomes of the different types of PM in the mental health and functioning of children living in homes in which they are exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV).

Method

Participants were 168 children, aged between 4 and 17, whose mothers experienced IPV. They were assessed using different measures of psychopathology and functioning: Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents-IV, Child Behavior Checklists and Child and Adolescent Functioning Assessment Scale. Furthermore, IPV was assessed with the Schedule for Assessment of Intimate Partner Violence Exposure in Children and the Index of Spouse Abuse. Statistical analyses were carried out with regression models adjusted by means of Generalized Estimating Equations.

Results

Spurning was the PM subtype with the greatest global effect on the children, as it was significantly associated with internalizing and externalizing problems. Denying emotional responsiveness specifically increased the risk of internalizing psychopathology and impairment in the emotional area. Terrorizing was not significantly associated with a greater number of negative outcomes in children's psychopathology or functioning in this population.

Implications

The results suggest the importance of taking PM types into account in order to fully understand the problems of children exposed to IPV at home, and for the design of effective treatment and prevention programs.     

An assessment of the recidivism rates of substantiated and unsubstantiated maltreatment cases.

OBJECTIVE: This study assembles information about the large number of maltreatment reports that are determined by social services to be unsubstantiated. Specifically, we assess whether the status of a maltreatment case (substantiated vs. unsubstantiated) has implications for recidivism. Recidivism rates for substantiated and unsubstantiated maltreated juveniles were also compared to juvenile offenders. METHOD: Juvenile court records for 15,812 juveniles were assessed over a 3 year period. The data included 2558 maltreatment cases. Fifty-four percent of these cases were unsubstantiated. Logistic regression analysis was employed to assess the probability of recidivism based on time one referral status. RESULTS: Youth whose maltreatment allegations were unsubstantiated had significantly lower odds of recidivating than abused youth. Having a case recorded as unsubstantiated lowered a youth's odds of subsequent offending by 55% relative to being abused. The probability of recidivating was highest for juvenile offenders, followed in order by maltreated youth and youth whose reports were unsubstantiated. DISCUSSION: This is one of the first studies to examine the court histories of substantiated and unsubstantiated maltreatment cases. If the subsequent outcomes following maltreatment investigations are used as an indicator of seriousness, our results suggest that assessment caseworkers are successfully sorting out the serious from the less serious cases.     

Children exposed to child maltreatment and intimate partner violence: a study of co-occurrence among Hong Kong Chinese families

Objective

This study assessed the co-occurrence of child maltreatment and intimate partner violence (IPV) and examined the association between them.

Method

The cross-sectional study recruited a population-based sample of 1,094 children aged 12-17 years in Hong Kong. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from the children. The prevalence of occurrence of child abuse and neglect by parents and exposure to IPV in both the past year and lifetime was examined, and their correlates were assessed using univariate and multivariate logistic regression.

Results

The results show that 26% and 14.6% of child participants had been exposed to IPV physical assault, and 44.4% and 22.6% had been subjected to a parent's corporal punishment or to physical maltreatment from a parent in their lifetime and the year preceding the study, respectively. Among those families characterized by IPV, 54.4% and 46.5% were involved in child physical maltreatment over the child's lifetime and in the preceding year, respectively.

Conclusions

Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that children exposed to IPV were at higher risk of being victims of neglect, corporal punishment, and physical maltreatment or severe physical maltreatment by their parents than children who were not exposed to IPV, even when child and parent demographic factors were controlled for.

Practical implications

The higher risk of child physical maltreatment associated with IPV highlights the need for an integrated assessment to screen for the presence of multiple forms of family violence within the family, and for intervention to assess effective responses to both IPV and child maltreatment by child protective service workers and domestic violence agencies.     

Repeated reports for child maltreatment among intimate partner violence victims: Findings from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being

ObjectivesTo determine the prevalence of intimate partner violence (defined as any physical violence during the last 12 months or previously) among mothers who maltreat their children, and to examine whether mothers’ experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV) are associated with repeated reports (rereports) of children to Child Protective Services (CPS) during the following 18 months.MethodsData for the analyses were from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW), a national probability study of children investigated for child maltreatment. The sample of 5,501 children (ages 0–14) was randomly selected from the families who entered the US child welfare system between October 1999 and December 2000. The analysis sample was restricted to 1,236 families in which caregivers were: (1) the alleged perpetrators of the child maltreatment at baseline (independently of substantiation status) and (2) the biological mothers (n = 1,212 or 98.6%), adoptive mothers (n = 17 or 1%), or stepmothers (n = 7 or 0.3%) of children not placed in out-of-home care.ResultsChildren of mothers physically abused by an intimate partner during the last 12 months or previously at the intake interview (44%) were twice as likely as children of mothers who had not experienced such violence to be rereported to CPS (29% vs. 14%, Odds Ratio = 2.0, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.1–3.4). Rereports occurred almost twice as quickly for children of mothers who experienced IPV compared to children of mothers who had not experienced IPV (Hazard Ratio = 1.9, 95% Confidence Interval = 1.1–3.0).ConclusionsThe higher risk and speedier rereports of child maltreatment associated with intimate partner violence highlights the need for universal assessment and provision of services for IPV among families that are investigated by CPS.     

Cumulative childhood maltreatment and its dose-response relation with adult symptomatology: Findings in a sample of adult survivors of sexual abuse

In the present study, we examined the role of cumulative childhood maltreatment experiences for several health related outcomes in adulthood, including symptoms of psychological distress as well as perceived social support and hardiness. The sample comprised adult survivors of sexual abuse (N = 278, 95.3% women, mean age at first abusive incident = 6.4 years). One-way ANOVAs revealed a statistically significant dose-response relation between cumulative childhood maltreatment scores and self-reported symptoms of posttraumatic stress (PTSS), anxiety, depression, eating disorders, dissociation, insomnia, nightmare related distress, physical pain, emotional pain, relational problems, self-harm behaviors as well as on a measure of symptom complexity. Cumulative childhood maltreatment was also associated with lower levels of work functioning. An inverse dose-response relation was found for perceived social support and hardiness. Using a Bonferroni corrected alpha level, cumulative childhood maltreatment remained significantly associated with all outcome measures with the exception of eating disorder symptoms after controlling for abuse-related independent variables in hierarchical regression analyses. Results add to previous literature by showing that dose-response relation between cumulative childhood adversities and adult symptom outcomes could also be identified in a sample characterized by high exposure to adversities, and lends support to the notion put forth by previous authors that cumulative childhood adversities seem to be related to the severity of adult health outcomes in a rule-governed way.     

Cycle of violence among young Kenyan women: The link between childhood violence and adult physical intimate partner violence in a population-based survey

The aim of the current analysis is to elucidate the link between childhood experiences of violence and physical intimate partner violence in young adulthood in a national survey of young Kenyan women. In 2010, we conducted the Violence against Children Survey in Kenya, collecting retrospective reports from 13 to 24 year old males and females (N = 2928). The analysis presented here focused on females aged 18–24 who ever had an intimate partner (n = 566). Young Kenyan women had statistically higher odds of experiencing physical intimate partner violence (IPV) in young adulthood if they had experienced any childhood violence (including sexual, emotional, or physical) [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 3.1 CI: 1.2–7.9, p = 0.02)], any childhood sexual violence (AOR = 2.5, CI 1.3–4.9, p = 0.006), or unwanted completed sex (including pressured or forced sex prior to age 18) (AOR = 4.3, CI: 2.3–8.3, p < 0.0001). Exposure to two (AOR = 3.9, CI: 1.2–12.2, p = 0.02) or three (AOR = 5.0, CI: 1.4–18.1, p = 0.01) types of violence in childhood was also associated with a significantly higher odds of experiencing adult physical IPV. Childhood violence is associated with increased odds of adult physical IPV among young women; efforts to prevent violence against children and provide appropriate care and support to adult survivors are critical to interrupt this cycle of violence     

Developmental effects of childhood household adversity,transitions, and relationship quality on adult outcomes of socioeconomic status: Effects of substantiated child maltreatment

The degree to which child maltreatment interacts with other household adversities to exacerbate risk for poor adult socioeconomic outcomes is uncertain. Moreover, the effects of residential, school, and caregiver transitions during childhood on adult outcomes are not well understood. This study examined the relation between household adversity and transitions in childhood with adult income problems, education, and unemployment in individuals with or without a childhood maltreatment history. The potential protective role of positive relationship quality in buffering these risk relationships was also tested. Data were from the Lehigh Longitudinal Study (n = 457), where subjects were assessed at preschool, elementary, adolescent, and adult ages. Multiple group path analysis tested the relationships between childhood household adversity; residential, school, and caregiver transitions; and adult socioeconomic outcomes for each group. Caregiver relationship quality was included as a moderator, and gender as a covariate. Household adversity was negatively associated with education level and positively associated with income problems for non-maltreated children only. For both groups, residential transitions was negatively associated with education level and caregiver transitions was positively associated with unemployment problems. Relationship quality was positively associated with education level only for non-maltreated children. For children who did not experience maltreatment, reducing exposure to household adversity is an important goal for prevention. Reducing exposure to child maltreatment for all children remains an important public health priority. Results underscore the need for programs and policies that promote stable relationships and environments.     

The effect of substantiated and unsubstantiated investigations of child maltreatment and subsequent adolescent health

Children with substantiated child maltreatment (CM) experience adverse health outcomes. However, it is unclear whether substantiation vs. an investigation not resulting in substantiation has a greater impact on subsequent adolescent health. Propensity scores were used to examine the effect of investigated reports on the subsequent health of 503 adolescent females. CM was categorized into three levels: 1) investigated and substantiated, 2) investigated but unsubstantiated, and 3) no investigation. Models using inverse propensity score weights estimated the effect of an investigation on subsequent teen motherhood, HIV-risk behaviors, drug use, and depressive symptoms. Females with any investigation, regardless of substantiation status, were more likely to become teen mothers, engage in HIV-risk behaviors, and use drugs compared to females with no investigated report. Substantiated CM was associated with depressive symptoms. Findings underscore the importance of maintaining case records, regardless of substantiation, to better serve adolescents at risk for deleterious outcomes. Prospective methods and propensity scores bolster causal inference and highlight how interventions implemented following investigation are an important prevention opportunity.     

Aggressive behavior of children exposed to intimate partner violence: An examination of maternal mental health,maternal warmth and child maltreatment

Objectives

Over 4.5 million children each year are exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). Furthermore, IPV rarely occurs without other forms of violence and aggression in the home. IPV is associated with mental health and parenting problems in mothers, and children experience a wide variety of short-term social adjustment and emotional difficulties, including behavioral problems. The current study investigated the influence of IPV exposure on children's aggressive behavior, and tested if this relation was mediated by poor maternal mental health, and, in turn, by maternal warmth and child maltreatment, and moderated by children's age and gender. Study findings highlight the indirect consequences of IPV in the home on children's aggressive behavior.

Methods

Secondary data analysis using structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted with the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW). Children were between the ages of 3–8 (n = 1,161). Mothers reported past year frequency of phsycial assualt by their partner, frequency of child psychological and physical abuse, maternal mental health, and children's aggressive behavior problems. Maternal warmth was measured by observation.

Results

IPV was significantly related to poor maternal mental health. Poor maternal mental health was associated with more child aggressive behavior, lower maternal warmth, and more frequent child physical and psychological abuse. Psychological abuse and low maternal warmth were directly related to more aggressive behavior while IPV exposure and physical abuse were not directly associated with aggressive behavior. Neither age nor gender moderated the modeled paths.

Conclusions

Expanding knowledge about child outcomes is especially critical for children who were involved in investigations of child maltreatment by child protective services (CPS) in order to identify relevant risk factors that can lead to interventions. The results identified maternal mental health as an important variable in mediating the relationship between IPV exposure and aggressive behavior. One implication is for multicomponent family interventions that could be tailored toward helping the mother cope with such mental health issues while also addressing deficits in children's social behavior development.     

Trajectories of traumatic stress reactions in children exposed to intimate partner violence

BackgroundUnderstanding different longitudinal patterns of traumatic stress reactions in children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV) can promote early identification of at-risk children.ObjectiveOur study aims to explore trajectories of traumatic stress reactions following childhood IPV exposure, and their relation with parental traumatic stress and child emotional security in the interparental subsystem.Participants and SettingThe sample comprised 303 children (age 3–10, M = 6.20) from families referred to institutions for IPV. Data were collected at home.MethodsThree waves of parent-reported questionnaire data were analyzed using latent class growth analysis and linear regression.ResultsFive trajectories were identified: ‘resilient’, ‘moderate stable’, ‘struggling’, ‘improving’, and ‘elevated adjusting’. Only the ‘struggling’ trajectory had dysfunctional symptom levels at the final wave. Higher parental traumatic stress predicted ‘improving’ trajectory membership (β = 0.17, p = .033), whereas lower parental traumatic stress (β = −0.20, p = .003) and child emotional insecurity (β = −0.45, p = < .001) predicted ‘resilient’ trajectory membership. Higher child emotional insecurity predicted membership in trajectories with higher initial traumatic stress (improving: β = 0.26, p < .001; struggling: β = 0.31, p < .001; elevated adjusting: β = 0.27, p < .001). Child emotional security did not buffer the effect of parental traumatic stress on likelihood of dysfunctional trajectory membership (β = 0.04, p =.380).ConclusionsChildren exposed to IPV show different trajectories of traumatic stress reactions, partly corresponding to trajectories identified in other populations. Child emotional security and parental traumatic stress predict trajectory membership.     

Childhood maltreatment experiences and problematic sexual outcomes in adult males who have sexually offended: Further evidence of the potency of male caregiver psychological abuse

BackgroundAlthough research on the developmental antecedents of sexual offending has tended to focus on sexual abuse, recent research in juveniles and adults who have sexually offended suggests that psychological abuse perpetrated by a male caregiver may be a particularly important factor in the development of problematic sexual interests and behaviors.ObjectiveThis study aimed to extend previous findings by investigating the association between psychological abuse by a male caregiver and problematic sexual outcomes in a sample of adult males who had sexually offended.ParticipantsParticipants were 529 adult males incarcerated for sexual offenses, 21% of whom were civilly committed.MethodsChildhood maltreatment and problematic sexual outcomes were assessed using the Multidimensional Assessment of Sex and Aggression, a contingency-based inventory that assesses domains related to sexual aggression. Hierarchical regressions were calculated examining the association between childhood abuse types and sexual outcomes.ResultsChildhood sexual abuse was associated with child sexual (β = .247, p < .001) and other paraphilic interests (β = .189, p < .001). Male caregiver psychological abuse also emerged as marginally associated with child sexual interest (β = .100, p = .059), even after controlling for other abuse types.ConclusionsThese results partially replicate recent findings in a juvenile sample and challenge conventional developmental theories of sexual offending, by suggesting that male caregiver psychological abuse may play a role in the etiology of child sexual interest among males who have sexually offended. This study also suggests a possible gender symmetry effect moderating the developmental consequences of abuse.     

Intimate partner violence victimization and parenting: A systematic review

Early studies examining parenting in the setting of intimate partner violence (IPV) often focus on abuse by the IPV perpetrator or effects of long term exposure. This review addresses how intimate partner violence impacts victim parenting. Seven databases were searched for the time period 1970–2015. Included were comparative studies involving children 11 years or younger. Quality ranking was based on: confirmation of victim status, consideration of co-perpetration, heterogeneity of the population, and standardization of measurements. Of 13,038 studies reviewed, 33 included studies showed that victimization is associated with negative parenting practices. Based on data presented within individual studies, 21 studies were eligible for meta-analysis which demonstrated modest effect sizes with high levels of heterogeneity. There was a negative correlation between IPV and positive parenting (r = -0.08; 95% CI: −.12, − .04); positive correlation between IPV and physical aggression (r = .17; 95% CI: .11, .23) and neglect (r = .12; 95% CI: .01, .23); and a trend toward positive correlation between IPV and psychological aggression (r = .23; 95% CI: −.94, .47). A synthesis of studies unsuitable for meta-analysis reinforced these findings. The review demonstrated ongoing methodological issues with extant literature.