Effects of instructional objectives on learning and retention

A synthesis is presented of the various rationales which predict the facilitative influence of instructional objectives on learning and retention. Facets which are particularly relevant to the analysis of instructional objectives in learning situations include the dimensional character of attending behavior, the optimal degree of specificity to be incorporated in specifying instructional outcomes, effects of the placement or position of objectives during instruction, and a discussion of investigations concerned with an incidental or unspecified learning criterion. The conclusion is that, on each of these issues, various instructional conditions determine the efficacy of utilizing objectives to promote learning and retention.     

Two instructional aids to optimise processing and learning from instructional explanations

Although instructional explanations are commonly used to introduce learners to new learning content, previous studies have often shown that their effects on learning outcomes are minimal. This failure might partly be due to mental passivity of the learners while processing introductory explanations and to a lack of opportunity to revise potential misunderstandings after working on introductory explanations. Against this background, we provided learners with two instructional support measures to optimise the introduction of new principles and concepts by providing instructional explanations in the domain of management theory: (a) prompts designed to induce inferences that are focused on the central content of the explanations, and (b) remedial explanations that are adapted to the learners’ knowledge gaps. We tested their effects in a 2 × 2 factorial experimental design with the following factors: (a) prompts designed to induce focused processing (with vs. without), and (b) remedial explanations (adapted vs. random). The participants consisted of 80 psychology students. We found that the prompts fostered both the share of deep-oriented processing and the acquisition of conceptual knowledge. The beneficial effect of prompts on conceptual knowledge was mediated by the number of inferences that learners generated in response to the prompts. In addition, we found that prompts also fostered the instructional efficiency of providing instructional explanations. The provision of adapted remedial explanations, however, fostered neither deep-oriented processing nor the acquisition of conceptual knowledge. We conclude that prompts designed to induce focused processing can foster deep-oriented processing as well as both the effectiveness and efficiency of learning from instructional explanations.     

Toward an instructional design model based on learning objects

The present moment in the history of higher education requires setting strategies and specific action plans to guarantee a place in the highly competitive and demanding world scenario. The incorporation of information and communication technologies is one of the feasible paths to be considered, but this requires formulating proposals insuring appropriate use of said technologies seeking improvement of education quality. For this purpose, Universidad de La Sabana has developed an instructional design model based on learning objects.     

Differential effects of instructional support on learning in simultation environments

This article investigates a complex Aptitude Treatment Interaction (ATI), of intelligence and metacognitive skill as aptitudes with structuredness of learning environment as treatment. A more structured learning environment is usually regarded as beneficial to learning in low intelligence students, whereas it may not affect or may even interfere with learning in high intelligence students. The overall analyses of four studies are presented, including a total of 99 subjects. High and low intelligence novices passed through either structured or unstructured simulation environments in the domains of heat theory, electricity, or statistics. Thinking-aloud protocols were analyzed in order to assess the metacognitive skillfulness of subjects. Several learning tests were administered, assessing both declarative and procedural domain knowledge. The results show that structuredness of learning environment did not affect learning in high intelligence subjects, irrespective of their level of metacognitive skillfulness. However, the structured learning environment yielded enhanced learning performances in low intelligence subjects with a low level of metacognitive skillfulness, while it interfered with learning in low intelligence subjects with a relatively high level of metacognitive skillfulness.     

Applying learning and instructional strategies in open and distance learning

This paper is about the application of learning and instructional strategies in open and distance learning settings. First, a brief comment is made on the nature of open and distance learning and also teaching and learning in such settings. This is followed by a brief discussion of the impacts of particular types of learning and instructional strategics on learning. A framework is presented for applying learning and instructional strategies in open and distance learning contexts, and the translation of this framework into an instructional transaction that offers a generic plan for developing instruction.

This is, therefore, a conceptual paper. It discusses a theoretical framework for applying learning and instructional strategies that is currently being implemented in the design and development of instruction for an on‐line (electronic) teaching‐learning environment. The results of that implementation will be reported at a later date.     

The effects of instructional explicitness on learning and error persistence

The purposes of this study were to investigate the effects of pictorial and/or verbal instructional stimuli on learning and error persistence. Subjects were 84 third-graders and 84 fourth-graders. Students were randomly assigned to a picture, oral, or combined presentation group. Each student saw and/or heard an adapted children's story. A constructed response recall test, containing both concrete and abstract items, was administered immediately, and 1 week after, the presentation. Oral and picture presentations yielded approximately equal learning of abstract content, but pictures yielded greater learning of concrete content. Error persistence for abstract content was greatest for picture-only presentations, while persistence of concrete errors was comparable across presentations.     

The impacts of a web-aided instructional simulation on science learning

This research investigated the effects of selected characteristics of a web-aided instructional simulation on students' conceptual change, problem solving and transfer. A two-pronged research study was conducted using 117 students enrolled in a beginning meteorology course at Iowa State University. For the experimental design, the performances of three groups (the with-log group, the without-log group and the control group) were compared on post-test scores and a weather forecasting activity. No statistically significant differences ( p < 0.05) were found among the groups on these measures. However, follow-up interview data obtained from five diverse students in the treatment group showed that the simulation with authentic situations, multiple representations and the capability of reviewing previous actions supported science learning. For the student who was able to readily take advantage of the information contained in the log and graphs, the simulation exercises were quickly completed and a sufficient understanding of the concept was developed to transfer the newly-gained knowledge to new situations, weather forecast exercises. For others, the simulation was less effective. Only one interviewee showed all three stages of Goos and Galbraith's model of problem solving. This student also demonstrated a better understanding of how to transfer newly-gained knowledge to weather forecast exercises. The other four interviewees, who did not show the features of all the stages, needed the teachers' facilitation to develop their problem-solving skills in order to achieve optimal learning when using the instructional simulation.     

Rethinking classroom-oriented instructional development models to mediate instructional planning in technology-enhanced learning environments

Although classroom-oriented instructional development (ID) models have the potential to help teachers think and plan for effective instruction with technology, research studies have shown that they are not widely employed. Many of these models have not factored in the complexities that teachers faced when planning for instruction in technology-enhanced learning environments (TELE). They also fail to facilitate teachers’ critical re-examination of their existing practices and exploration of other practices to take up the affordances of technologies for effective instruction. Adopting an activity theoretical perspective towards instructional planning in the TELE, this paper examines two existing ID models: Reiser and Dick [1996. Instructional planning: A guide for teachers. Boston: Allen and Bacon] and Morrison, Ross, and Kemp [2004. Designing effective instruction (4th ed.) New York: Wiley]. It then constructs a classroom-oriented expansive and reflective ID model that: (1) facilitates the teacher's re-examination of their existing practices to identify contradictions in his/her instructional planning process in the TELE; (2) treats the ID elements in a nonlinear and non-sequential way; (3) accounts for the decisions made by other participants in the TELE, especially students and other teachers; (4) supports teachers’ formulation of solutions to the contradictions and transforms practices to take up the affordances of technology in the TELE; and (5) recognizes the need for teachers to move beyond the current activity by reflecting upon it so as to enable the emergence of new norms of practice.     

Effectiveness of learning objects in various instructional settings

Learning objects (LOs), generally understood as digital learning resources shared and accessed through the Internet and reused in multiple learning contexts, have aroused enthusiasm in the field of educational technology. Although LOs offer many possibilities to change educational practices, there is a lack of empirical evidence on the effectiveness and usefulness of LOs. This paper reports results from three studies on effectiveness of LOs in various instructional settings. According to the results, there exists interaction between the effectiveness of LOs and various instructional arrangements. In order to be effective LOs require carefully designed learning environments and instructional arrangements. LOs themselves do not guarantee high‐quality learning performance and meaningful learning activities. It is the context of use together with instructional arrangements that defines the pedagogical value of LOs.     

学习体验的发生结构与教学策略

学习体验既是一种生命体验,又是建构知识意义、焕发生命活力、提升生命价值的手段和途径,因而是教学活动揭示、展现、提升生命意义的关键。学习体验的发生依承于历构层、预构层、临构层的相互作用与有机统一。教学目标向学习期望的转化、教学内容向学习内容的内化、教学授受向教学对话的转变能够有效引发学生的学习体验。     

Liberating learning object design from the learning style of student instructional designers

Learning objects are a new form of learning resource, and the design of these digital environments has many facets. To investigate senior instructional design students' use of reflection tools in designing learning objects, a series of studies was conducted using the Reflective Action Instructional Design and Learning Object Review Instrument tools. Analysis revealed that most participants found the reflection questions useful in design but also that intensive use of the tools is needed to free learning object design from the personal learning traits of the designers.     

Successful learning: balancing self-regulation with instructional planning

Many recent studies have stressed the importance of teacher candidates’ (TCs) self-regulated learning (SRL) skills for successful learning. Because of the promising consequences of SRL for academic performance, teacher educators (TEs) are encouraged to increase TCs’ SRL opportunities in educational programs. Because of the difficulty and complexity for TEs to successfully guide TCs towards SRL, the present study contributes to the discussion how to best facilitate TEs in finding a balance between student- and teacher-control. For this purpose, a conceptual model is presented. The model draws upon literature related to the perspective of the learner, the teacher and the learning task. Besides the context of teacher education, the model is beneficial for higher education as well as teaching and teacher professionalization. It will help instructors provide a more balanced approach between teacher- and student-controlled learning, and support students develop essential SRL skills.     

Effects of curriculum-based measurement on teachers' instructional planning

This study assessed the effects of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) on teachers' instructional planning. Subjects were 30 teachers, assigned randomly to a computer-assisted CBM group, a noncomputer CBM group, and a contrast group. In the CBM groups, teachers specified 15-week reading goals, established CBM systems to measure student progress toward goals at least twice weekly, and systematically evaluated those data bases to determine when instructional modifications were necessary. Contrast teachers monitored student progress toward Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals as they wished and were encouraged to develop instructional programs as necessary. At the end of a 12- to 15-week implementation period, teachers completed a questionnaire with reference to one randomly selected pupil. Analyses of variance indicated no difference between the CBM groups. However, compared to the contrast group, CBM teachers (a) used more specific, acceptable goals; (b) were less optimistic about goal attainment; (c) cited more objective and frequent data sources for determining the adequacy of student progress and for deciding whether program modifications were necessary; and (d) modified student programs more frequently. Questionnaire responses were correlated with verifiable data sources, and results generally supported the usefulness of the self-report information. Implications for special education research and practice are discussed.     

Effects of self-regulatory instructional aids on self-directed study

This study examined the effectiveness of providing instructional support for the self-regulation of a self-directed homework assignment. Across four parallel experiments, university students completed an online module on critical thinking. In Experiment 1, participants who were prompted on a broad spectrum of study strategies showed superior performance on a subsequent test of application relative to a control group. In Experiment 2, participants were prompted to use two specific strategies: generation of explanations and summarization. The former improved performance, whereas the latter did not. In Experiment 3, instructional aids designed to facilitate planning improved some aspects of performance relative to the control group. In Experiment 4, attempts to encourage self-feedback impaired performance. In conclusion, beyond encouraging a broad spectrum of study strategies, the generation of explanations and planning particularly improve learning without overburdening working memory.     

Cognitive styles and instructional design in university learning

Changes in conceptualization and measurement of the verbalizer–visualizer dimension led us to re-examine the hypothesis that students learn best when instructional material matches their cognitive style. First-year psychology university students (n = 41) studied information on three personality theories presented in text only, text+picture, or text+schematic diagram format, demonstrated recall and comprehension of each theory, and completed an adapted cognitive styles questionnaire. Spatial and object visual scale scores were not correlated, but the latter showed a significant though relatively weak negative correlation with verbal scale scores. Recall could be predicted from students' verbal and object visual scores when presentation format matched these cognitive styles. All three styles significantly predicted students' comprehension, but only when they matched the presentation format. The results support the distinction between spatial and object visual styles, and provide evidence that learning outcomes improve when instructional material is matched to students' cognitive styles.