A consideration of cognitive factors in the learning and education of older adults

The purpose of this paper is to consider the unique cognitive and intellectual factors that influence the learning and education of older adults. With this objective in mind, the paper reviews the empirical literature on patterns of intellectual and cognitive aging, and ends by discussing the implications and applications of these patterns for the practical and effective education of our elderly citizenry. When we consider the aging of intellectual abilities we are concerned with studying the development of fluid, crystallized and practical intelligence and variations in these abilities from adulthood into advanced old age. We are also concerned with looking at changes in cognitive functions such as attention, memory, information retrieval and tolerance for interference in learning capacity. Much recent work has been successful in showing that intellectual and cognitive decline in old age is not necessarily irreversible. While many elderly persons are very able learners, are highly self-directed, and have ample educational and intellectual resources available, others may benefit from assistance or suggestions about how to compensate for some of the cognitive declines in old age. With this objective the implications are discussed for educators and practitioners who must formulate cognitive training programs for older adults.

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Zusammenfassung Ziel dieses Artikels ist eine Untersuchung der einzigartigen kognitiven und intellektuellen Faktoren, die Bildung und Lernen für Ältere beeinflussen. Unter Berücksichtigung dieses Ziels wird die empirische Literatur über intellektuelle und kognitive Altersmuster neu ausgewertet. Der Schlußteil umfaßt eine Diskussion über Auswirkungen und Anwendungen dieser Muster zur praktischen und effektiven Bildung unserer älteren Mitbürger. Angesichts des Alterns unserer intellektuellen Fähigkeiten befassen wir uns mit der Entwicklung von fließender, komprimierter und praktischer Intelligenz und Variationen dieser Fähigkeiten vom Erwachsenenalter bis zum fortgeschrittenen Altern. Themen sind außerdem die Veränderungen der kognitiven Funktionen wie z.B. Aufmerksamkeit, Gedächtnis, Informationsabruf und Toleranz für die Interferenz in der Lernkapazität. Ein großer Teil der Untersuchungen zu diesem Thema bewies erfolgreich, daß intellektueller und kognitiver Verfall im Alter nicht unbedingt irreversibel sein muß. Während viele Ältere fähige Schüler sind, gut autonom lernen können und freie Bildungs- und Lernkapazitäten zur Verfügung haben, könnten andere von Vorschlägen und Hilfsprogrammen zur Kompensierung der Alterserscheinungen profitieren. Unter Berücksichtigung dieser Faktoren werden die Folgen für Ausbilder und Praktiker, die kognitive Programme und Fortbildungen für Ältere erstellen müssen, erörtert.

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Résumé L'objet du présent article est d'étudier les facteurs cognitifs et intellectuels uniques qui influencent l'apprentissage et l'éducation des personnes âgées. C'est en suivant cet objectif qu'on examine la littérature empirique sur les structures du vieillissement intellectuel et cognitif avant de se tourner vers l'analyse des implications et applications desdites structures pour l'éducation pratique et efficace de l'ensemble des citoyens âgés. Lorsqu'on envisage l'affaiblissement des facultés intellectuelles, on s'intéresse à l'étude du développement de l'intelligence fluide, cristallisée et pratique et aux variations de ces aptitudes de l'âge adulte jusqu'à un âge avancé. On observe également les changements qui interviennent dans les fonctions cognitives telles l'attention, la mémoire, la recherche documentaire et la tolérance de l'interférence dans l'aptitude à l'étude. De récents travaux ont réussi à montrer que le déclin intellectuel et cognitif dans la vieillesse n'est pas nécessairement irréversible. Tandis que de nombreuses personnes âgées sont des apprenants très capables et hautement auto-dirigés qui possèdent de grandes ressources éducatives et intellectuelles, il se peut que d'autres aient besoin d'assistance ou de suggestions quant à la manière de compenser certaines carences cognitives survenant avec l'âge. Eu égard à cet objectif, on discute des implications pour les éducateurs et les enseignants qui doivent formuler les programmes de formation cognitive destinés aux personnes âgées.

     

The role of noncognitive factors in the cognitive performance of older adults

This review examines the available evidence on the impact of noncognitive factors on the cognitive performance of young and older adults. After considering studies organized around a framework of cohort-associated modifiers, motive states, task and measurement factors, and environmental effects, the observation is offered that noncognitive factors and age-related deficits in cognitive processes are related and account, in part, for age differences in cognitive performance. It is argued that the time may be ripe for educational psychologists to renew and to expand their contributions to the adult development literature. Several areas of research pertinent to educational psychologists are identified.     

Teacher Absenteeism and Ill Health Retirement: A review

Teachers who take time away from work through sickness present problems for school principals in covering their work. Their absence will have an impact on students and other teachers, as well as on the money available to schools. When teachers become too ill to teach again, their absence before retirement may affect the organisation of the school, while their premature retirement due to disability can have adverse consequences both for the individual and the education system as a whole. This paper reviews research into teacher illness and absenteeism. Drawing on data from Europe and North America, it examines a number of issues, including the definition and measurement of absenteeism, its cost, and the relationship between absenteeism and student attendance and school performance. Research comparing teacher absenteeism data with figures for other public employees is also considered. Approaches to managing absenteeism, including policy development and implementation, are reviewed. Possible causes of teachers' early retirement because of disability are set within the context of management practice, educational reform and making best use of 'older' employees.     

Role of cognitive prompts in video caregiving training for older adults: optimizing deep and surface learning

Enhancing the cognitive functionality of digital technology can be critical in learning complex topics like caregiving for older adults. This study examines the deployment of cognitive prompts in video-based training to optimize older adults’ cognitive information process in both deep and surface learning. The path analysis revealed the relationship among cognitive prompts, crystallized knowledge and learning outcomes showing crystallized knowledge as a significant mediator between cognitive prompts and learning outcomes. Additionally, cognitive prompts were shown to be significant in activating older learners’ prior knowledge, rendering the learning process more meaningful and purposeful for older adults.     

Computer lab usage in the elementary program: An integrated approach

Conclusion The integration at Makefield and Manor Elementary Schools of the microcompuer with the elementary curriculum has increased student achievement and teacher comfort with her new technology. Our programs are still being refined as an outgrowth of these efforts and our on-going self-assessment.     

Molestation and the onset of puberty: data from 365 adults molested as children

This study examines whether molestation is most likely to occur before or after the onset of puberty and also whether molestation is likely to be a one-time occurrence or last for a long time. The study analyzed intake interviews from 365 adults molested as children (AMACs). The AMACs were entering treatment at the Child Sexual Abuse Treatment Program, San Jose, CA. This paper presents data on the age of onset and end of the molestation and the duration of the molestation in years. For this sample, the average age of onset was 7.5; the average age at the end of the molestation was 13. The overwhelming majority of molestations lasted one year or more. We discuss results in the context of past studies and suggest areas for further research.     

Age Friendly Universities and engagement with older adults: moving from principles to practice

Abstract

The global society is facing a new burgeoning element: an ageing population. Response to the educational needs and interests of older adults requires innovative pedagogies and practices of teaching, research, and community engagement. While traditionally geared towards provision for younger adults, the case is presented that universities have the potential to play a major role in innovation for later life learning for older adults. This article outlines one approach, the Age Friendly University (AFU) and highlights 10 principles that offer a possible guide for innovation and institutional change. The integration of AFU’s mission and principles into three universities is reflected in stories from three university cases in Ireland, the UK (Scotland) and the USA exploring potential merits and also major challenges. It is argued the AFU has the potential to bring social, personal and economic benefits to older adults and universities alike.     

Perpetrators and their acts: data from 365 adults molested as children

Intake interviews were analyzed from 365 adults molested as children (AMACs). The AMACs were entering treatment at the Child Sexual Abuse Treatment Program (San Jose, CA). This study presents data on the relationship of the perpetrator to the victim, and whether most molestations include intercourse. The majority of the perpetrators (62%) were either biological fathers or father-surrogates. Ninety-nine percent of the perpetrators were known to the victim; 97% were male. As in past studies, fondling from the waist down was the most common type of molestation, occurring in 92% of the cases. Forty-four percent of cases included intercourse. The present findings are compared with past research and are discussed in the context of common misconceptions associated with child sexual abuse.     

Malnutrition and its association with functional,cognitive and psychological status among Palestinian older adults in long-term care houses

ABSTRACT

Older adults often suffer from psychological, functional and health-related diseases. Literature has documented the relationship between, malnutrition with adverse health outcomes. This study aims to examine the relationship between malnutrition with the cognitive, functional and psychological status of older adults living in long-term care houses. The study employed a cross-sectional approach in which 99 participants were included from seven nursing homes in six different cities across the West Bank, Palestine. The nutritional status of older adults was assessed using anthropometric measurements and meal patterns. Malnutrition risk was assessed using Mini Nutritional Assessment; the cognitive function using Mini Mental Status Examination; the functional status using the Activity of Daily Living. Results: A total of 99 participants (45.5%) men and (54.5%) women were included in the final data analysis. The results revealed 47% of the participants were at risk of malnutrition, while 23% were malnourished. Variables that were significantly associated with malnutrition; male gender, higher score of depressive symptoms, and impaired cognitive function, p < .05 using chi square test. However, number of meals and hours of overnight fasting were not associated with being malnourished. Greater dependency level was associated with high risk of malnutrition, p < .05 using One Way ANOVA test.

Conclusion: Risk of malnutrition was common among the study sample, and it was associated with impaired cognitive, psychological and functional status. Hence, there is a need to provide older adults living in long-term care houses with health programs to enhance their overall health and decrease the level of dependency. These findings are important to design educational programs targeting the stakeholders in the long-term care facilities to improve the residents' nutritional and functional status.     

Healthcare needs of older adults: in their own words

Community-based health and human services professionals can play an important role in bolstering wellness through offering education to elderly residents and healthcare providers on how to address the unique needs of this population. The purpose of this study was to examine the healthcare needs of the elderly living in two metropolitan counties in Georgia that have experienced an increase in the number of elderly residents. Utilizing qualitative data garnered through focus groups, two main themes were identified: the role of exercise as a means of personal power and feelings of powerlessness. Participants’ narratives reflected opportunities and situations fostering good health through exerting their personal power to alter or improve individual health. On the other hand, negative pathways leading away from optimal health were realized when participants felt powerless to change their health status. For health and human services professionals working with the elderly, these findings should be considered as population, personal well-being, and power changes overtime.     

Hyphens for disambiguating phrases: effectiveness for young and older adults

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether hyphens that disambiguate phrasing in ambiguous sentences influence reading rate and reading comprehension for younger and older adults. Moreover, as working memory (WM) has been implicated in age-related changes in sentence comprehension for both auditory and written materials, we asked if it contributed to comprehension of our sentences with hyphenated and non-hyphenated ambiguous noun phrases (NPs), predicting that the hyphens would reduce WM load. Twenty younger (M?=?24?years) and 20 older (M?=?73?years) adults read sentences with either ambiguous or non-ambiguous NPs that were either hyphenated or not. Both reading times for the sentences and accuracy on Yes/No questions were measured. Results indicated that younger adults read sentences more rapidly than the older participants whether sentences were presented word-by-word or as complete sentences. Both younger and older adults read sentences with ambiguous hyphenated NPs faster than sentences with ambiguous non-hyphenated NPs. Yes/No question accuracy distinguished reading of the sentences with ambiguous hyphenated phrases from those with ambiguous non-hyphenated phrases for older, but not for younger adults. Regression analyses showed that age contributed to both accuracy and reading times on this task, whereas WM did not.     

Recruiting older adults as participants in applied social research: Applying and evaluating approaches from clinical studies

While issues of recruiting older persons in clinical trials are well known, efficacious strategies in the recruitment process in applied social research are less explored. As more research becomes community-based, it is useful to see, if effective clinical-trial recruitment strategies can be applied to social and applied research studies. The goal of this article is to examine clinical recruitment strategies used with older adults (e.g. print and electronic advertising, referrals, and community-partnered approaches) in applied social research studies and to illustrate issues arising from the use of each recruitment approach with older adults in real-life settings. Experiences from four community-based, social research studies are included to show how some of the most successful clinical recruitment strategies fare in social gerontological studies. Specific guidelines are provided about how recruitment strategies can aid in future study planning and improved recruitment of older participants in social research.     

Literacy activity and health among older adults in the USA

ABSTRACT

Health literacy skills are known to be a key mediator of the relationship between education and health in the general population. However, one aspect of health literacy skills—individuals’ actual literacy activities—remains understudied, especially among older adults. Health disparities that are driven by inequalities in education and level of health literacy skills are particularly problematic for older adults since they are exacerbated in old age by disadvantages that accumulate over the life course. This study examined a nationally representative sample of US adults age 50 years and older (n = 2,573) using data from the 2014 Program for International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Parallel mediation analysis was conducted to examine the partial mediation effects of health literacy skills and literacy activity (i.e., reading at home) on the relationship between education and health. Results showed that both health literacy skills and literacy activity mediated the education–health relationship. On average, literacy skills mediated 31.89% and literacy activities mediated 9.59% of the effect of education of self-rated health. Literacy activity, such as reading, is an easily accessible, autonomous, and sustainable option for promoting health in later life. Policies that support the intersection of public health and education may promote lifelong learning and well-being among US adults.     

Outdoor activity among older adults: Exploring the role of informational Internet use

ABSTRACT

The Internet has the potential to enable older adults to live a socially active and self-determined life. An important facet of active aging is participation in outdoor activity. Previous research has shown that older Internet users participated more frequently in outdoor activities. However, understanding of how Internet use can influence the behavior of going outdoors is still limited. To bridge this gap, the goal of this study was to examine whether informational Internet use specific to opportunities and offerings in the city facilitates participation in outdoor activity. Primary survey data from individuals aged 65+ living in a medium-sized city in Europe (N = 1,117) was analyzed. The results show that Internet as an information source predicted community activity for participants living in urban neighborhoods but not in a rural neighborhood. Further, informational Internet use predicted cultural activity for residents living in all three neighborhoods. The results thus emphasize the positive effect of informational Internet use on behavior through providing older adults with useful information about opportunities and offerings available in their neighborhood. Taken together, the findings provide a rationale for the development of digital neighborhood platforms and interventions targeted at older adults’ digital skills.     

从辩证的视野浅析健康与亚健康

在辩证的视野下,用发展变化的观点认识健康与亚健康的概念,了解健康——亚健康——疾病之间的转换关系,从而为现代人类社会的健康提供可支配的运动处方,对预防亚健康,提高机体健康水平,增强体适能提供理论参考。     

老年人退休生涯成功转换的历程:台湾的实证研究

高龄社会即将来临,加上提早退休的情况,台湾高龄者退休生涯转换的历程是值得探究的议题。以质性研究的方法,针对30位成功老化者进行半结构式的访谈,其目的是要了解他们退休生涯转换的历程。研究结果:受访者在退休前的期待与担忧,会形成积极规划与缺乏准备两种不同的取向;退休生涯转换时期的途径,包括计划型、延续型与重新调适型;退休生涯的稳定期,涵盖生理健康、心理安适、活跃的社会参与以及灵性层面的成长;在经历退休生涯转换的历程后,受访者以积极进取、维持既有的生活方式,以及把握时下等三种方式继续未来的退休生涯。研究结果可提供高龄者退休生涯调适的谘商与辅导,以及高龄学习活动规划的参考。     

Computer technology and complex problem solving: Issues in the study of complex cognitive activity

Goals and plans organize much of complex problem solving behavior and are often inferable from action sequences. This paper addresses the strengths and limitations of inferring goals and plans from information that can be derived from computer traces of software used to solve mathematics problems. We examined mathematics problem solving activity about distance, rate, time relationships in a computer software environment designed to support understanding of functional relationships among these variables (e.g., distance =rate × time; time=distance/rate) using graphical representations of the results of simulations. Ten adolescent-aged students used the software to solve two distance, rate, time problems, and provided think-aloud protocols. To determine the inferability of understanding from the action traces, coders analyzed students' understanding from the computer traces alone (Trace-only raters) and compared these to analyses based on the traces plus the verbal protocols (Traceplus raters). Inferability of understanding from the action traces was related to level of student understanding how they used the graphing tool. When students had a good understanding of distance, rate, time relationships, it could be accurately inferred from the computer traces if they used the simulation tool in conjunction with the graphing tool. When students had a weak understanding, the verbal protocols were necessary to make accurate inferences about what was and was not understood. The computer trace also failed to capture dynamic exploration of the visual environment so students who relied on the graphing tool were inaccurately characterized by the Trace-only coders. Discussion concerns types of scaffolds that would be helpful learning environment for complex problems, the kind of information that is needed to adequately track student understanding in this content domain, and instructional models for integrating learning environments like these into classrooms.Members of the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt who have contributed to this project are (in alphabetical order) Helen Bateman, John Bransford, Thaddeus Crews, Allison Moore, Mitchell Nathan, and Stephen Owens. The research was supported, in part, by grants from the National Science Foundation (NSF-MDR-9252990) but no official endorsement of the ideas expressed herein should be inferred.     

认知视角下的否定歧义及语言形式上的佐证

否定是否有歧义尚无定论.单义派的一些研究试图通过证明元语否定标记的缺失推翻否定歧义说.为了反驳这一论断,进而证明否定语用歧义的存在,本文以汉语的"是"为例,在元表达框架内证明某些常见于元语否定的语言形式并不是专门的元语否定标记.借助三域理论,本文进一步证明否定在行、知、言三域的语用歧义.为了标识否定所处的认知域,某些元...