The determinants of the intention to continue voluntary football refereeing

Competitive sports require a regulating body of referees to enforce the rules for the effective operation of the game. However, the number of referees is generally decreasing, leading to organisational problems at the amateur level. The purpose of this research is to identify the factors that determine the intention to continue voluntary refereeing in the context of football in Germany. Combining several concepts as predictors, including both the antecedents and the experience of volunteering, in this study, the authors extend the understanding about volunteers’ intentions to continue their activity and address the research gap regarding the analyses of specific volunteer groups such as referees. By means of an online questionnaire, the authors surveyed voluntary football referees in Germany (n = 4541). Regression analysis reveals the motive of self-orientation, respect shown by athletes, coaches, and spectators towards referees, compatibility of refereeing with one’s occupational and private life, perceived organisational support, and referees’ satisfaction to predict referees’ positive intention to continue with their activity. Simultaneously, experiences of offences during refereeing negatively influence this intention, and younger referees show higher intentions to continue their activity than do older referees. Because volunteer recruitment and retention are expensive, the findings of this study facilitate the improvement of effective retention strategies for the federations responsible for referees.     

Decision-making skills and deliberate practice in elite association football referees

We examined sport expertise as a function of role. In study 1, referees were better than players in a video-based decision-making task. This provides evidence that there are role-specific skills within one domain or sport. In study 2, we examined the training activities that could be influential in the development of skills in sports officials. Elite association football (soccer) referees retrospectively reported time spent in and perceptions of training activities for three periods: their first year of formal refereeing, 1998 (before formal training programmes were available), and the current year (2003). This allowed us to examine an area of skill with a limited culture of practice, where performance simulations with direct feedback are usually not feasible. The results showed that referees specialize early and, as they develop, they engage in greater volumes and types of training. Competitive match refereeing is considered a relevant activity for skill acquisition that does not fit Ericsson and colleagues' (1993) original definition of deliberate practice. Our findings indicate that actual performance is a significant activity for skill acquisition and refinement.     

The impact of a team's aggressive reputation on the decisions of association football referees

It has been suggested that individuals may use heuristic methods of reasoning and rely on schemata when a quick decision is necessary. Accordingly, it is possible that decisions made by sport officials may be influenced by prior knowledge they have about teams they are officiating. The aim of the present study was to determine whether sport officials are more likely to penalize individuals who participate in a team with an aggressive reputation. In a balanced design, 38 football referees were randomly assigned to either an experimental or control group and were presented with the same 50 video clips of incidents from football games, all involving a team in a blue strip ('blue team'). The incidents were categorized before the study by five experienced referees into fouls committed both by, and against, the blue team, where all participants agreed that a foul had been committed (certain incidents), disagreed it was a foul (uncertain incidents) or agreed that there was no foul (innocuous incidents). Both groups received written instructions before the task; in addition, the experimental group was informed that the blue team present in all of the clips had a reputation for foul and aggressive play. For each incident, the participants were required to indicate what action they would engage in if refereeing the game. Although there was no difference in the number of decisions made, the experimental group awarded significantly more red and yellow cards against the blue team both overall and for the 'certain' incidents. It is suggested that prior knowledge may impact referees' behaviour in a laboratory setting, although future research should explore whether a similar effect is observed in the behaviour of referees during football matches.     

Key attributes of expert NRL referees

Experiential knowledge of elite National Rugby League (NRL) referees was investigated to determine the key attributes contributing to expert officiating performance. Fourteen current first-grade NRL referees were asked to identify the key attributes they believed contributed to their expert refereeing performance. The modified Delphi method involved a 3-round process of an initial semi-structured interview followed by 2 questionnaires to reach consensus of opinion. The data revealed 25 attributes that were rated as most important that underpin expert NRL refereeing performance. Results illustrate the significance of the cognitive category, with the top 6 ranked attributes all cognitive skills. Of these, the referees ranked decision-making accuracy as the most important attribute, followed by reading the game, communication, game understanding, game management and knowledge of the rules. Player rapport, positioning and teamwork were the top ranked game skill attributes underpinning performance excellence. Expert referees also highlighted a number of psychological attributes (e.g., concentration, composure and mental toughness) that were significant to performance. There were only 2 physiological attributes (fitness, aerobic endurance) that were identified as significant to elite officiating performance. In summary, expert consensus was attained which successfully provided a hierarchy of the most significant attributes of expert NRL refereeing performance.     

The impact of a team's aggressive reputation on the decisions of association football referees

It has been suggested that individuals may use heuristic methods of reasoning and rely on schemata when a quick decision is necessary. Accordingly, it is possible that decisions made by sport officials may be influenced by prior knowledge they have about teams they are officiating. The aim of the present study was to determine whether sport officials are more likely to penalize individuals who participate in a team with an aggressive reputation. In a balanced design, 38 football referees were randomly assigned to either an experimental or control group and were presented with the same 50 video clips of incidents from football games, all involving a team in a blue strip ('blue team'). The incidents were categorized before the study by five experienced referees into fouls committed both by, and against, the blue team, where all participants agreed that a foul had been committed (certain incidents), disagreed it was a foul (uncertain incidents) or agreed that there was no foul (innocuous incidents). Both groups received written instructions before the task; in addition, the experimental group was informed that the blue team present in all of the clips had a reputation for foul and aggressive play. For each incident, the participants were required to indicate what action they would engage in if refereeing the game. Although there was no difference in the number of decisions made, the experimental group awarded significantly more red and yellow cards against the blue team both overall and for the 'certain' incidents. It is suggested that prior knowledge may impact referees' behaviour in a laboratory setting, although future research should explore whether a similar effect is observed in the behaviour of referees during football matches.     

从女子足球比赛特点谈如何提高女足裁判员执法水平

随着世界和我国女子足球运动的发展,女子足球裁判员也应运而生。目前,女子足球运动水平提高很快,发展 迅速。因此,探讨女子足球比赛特点,对进一步全面提高女子足球裁判员自身素质和执法水平大有裨益。通过第九届全 运会和第四届世界女足锦标赛的分析,我们对当今女子足球比赛特点进行了研究,旨在为培养和提高女子足球裁判员执 法水平提供参考。     

Nutrition and Biochemistry in the Journal of Sports Sciences: A call for papers and announcing the introduction of letters to the editor

Abstract

In association football, two similar but arguably different refereeing roles are required, those of the referee and assistant referee. Role specificity was investigated with a foul play assessment task and an offside decision-making task. Deliberate practice was investigated to account for role-specific differences. First, role specificity was clearly observed. Second, years of officiating, hours of practice per week, and number of matches officiated were each positively correlated with skill. The results support role specificity in association football refereeing. Further research should help to create role-specific perception and decision-making training programmes both for referees and assistant referees.     

足球模拟裁判教学程序设计实验性研究

足球裁判能力的培养与提高,对足球运动的发展起到积极推动作用,是足球竞赛工作的重要保证。本文通过模拟教学手段,结合足球选项课裁判教学的特点,运用模拟临场裁判的实际操作,并施加必要的手段,设计出一套模拟裁判教学程序,达到有效提高学生裁判执法,水平,旨在改进和提高足球选项课法规及执法的教学质量。     

完善足球规则与提高裁判员执法水平之我见

足球比赛的结果,受多种因素的影响,其中,裁判的作用不可低估,一场调换南量的比赛,离不开裁判的正确判罚和有效控制。我国足球水平的提高,不单纯是指球员及教练员业务水平的提高,裁判的水平提高也是一个方面。加强对裁判员的业务能务培养及道德品质教育,也是提高我国足球水平的一个重要方面。     

Referees and the media: a difficult relationship but an unavoidable necessity

The association football/media relationship has evolved since the sport was covered in newspapers, and on radio and television. The impact of the media on association football is undeniable with increased wealth in the game directly attributable to the increasing monetary value of television deals covering the English Premier League. This has, in turn, meant that refereeing decisions are now subject to intensified scrutiny and historically this has been identified as a significant source of pressure for referees. This article has utilized semi-structured interviews with the broadcast media in the UK alongside a notational analysis of 20 live Premier League matches in the 2013–2014 season, in order to analyse the pressure exerted by the media on referees. Findings indicate that the pressure on referees is not as great as previously accepted. Interviews and notational analysis demonstrate a more considered interpretation of the role of the referee today in association football.     

Relative age effect and soccer refereeing: A ‘Strategic Adaptation’ of relatively younger children?

Abstract

Previous research suggested that the relative age effect (RAE) has a psychological influence on children and their decision to engage in a particular sport. Relatively younger children seem to have lower self-esteem. Indeed, because of the disadvantages of being younger, it is assumed that these players experience more situations of failure and inferiority. Because of these negative performance cues, it is likely that these young players feel less competent, which eventually leads to a higher dropout rate. These children can also decide to participate in sports in which physical attributes are less important. This shift from one sport to another can be interpreted as a ‘strategic adaptation’. The purpose of this study was thus to investigate whether refereeing could be another form of ‘strategic adaptation’. If a child chooses a specific sport but then does not feel competent enough to be a player, refereeing might be an alternate path followed to stay in the environment of a sport they like. Given the minimal age limits for refereeing, two hypotheses were formulated: (1) ‘reversed’ RAE would be observed in district referees younger than 18 years old and (2) no RAE would be observed in district referees older than 18 years old, regional referees and national referees. The birthdates of all official male soccer referees (n=13,952) were collected from the federation database. Results show that the distribution of all district referees was significantly unbalanced (χ²=18.73, df=3, P<0.001) with an over-representation of individuals who were born in the second half of the competitive year. As expected, this imbalance was exclusively located in district referees of 18 years old and less (χ²=8.03, df=3, P<0.05), while the distribution was uniform for adults (χ²=5.17, df=3, P<0.16). Concerning regional referees (χ²=2.09, df=3, P<0.554) and national referees (χ²=3.75, df=3, P<0.290), the results also provide support for our initial hypothesis as uniform distributions were found for both groups. This study brings to light new elements in the potential relationship between relative age and refereeing. Qualitative and/or longitudinal research is needed to confirm our quantitative data.     

Activity profile and physical demands of football referees and assistant referees in international games

Abstract

Time-motion analyses and physiological measurements were performed to investigate the physiological demands of football referees (n = 15) and assistant referees (n = 15) in international games and to examine whether high-intensity running (HIR) correlates to the referees' ability to keep up with play. Total distance covered (10.27 ± 0.90 vs. 6.76 ± 0.83 km) and HIR (1.92 ± 0.58 vs. 0.97 ± 0.22 km) was higher (P < 0.05) for referees than assistant referees, while sprinting distance was not different. Referees covered 0.89 ± 0.37 km by backwards running and assistant referees covered 1.54 ± 0.66 km by sideways running. Mean heart rate was higher (P < 0.05) for referees than assistant referees (150 ± 3 vs. 123 ± 3 b.p.m.), whereas blood lactate was not different. Backwards/sideways running decreased (P < 0.05) from the first to the last 15-min period for referees (49%) and assistant referees (42%), whereas HIR was unaltered. HIR was inversely correlated with the five highest distances from infringements in both halves (r = ?0.60 and ?0.58, P < 0.05). In conclusion, international match officials carry out an important amount of HIR throughout games, while low-intensity and unorthodox running activities are reduced during games. Referees performing the most high-intensity work are better to keep up with play. The match activities differ significantly between referees and assistant referees, which should be considered in training and testing procedures.     

Elite refereeing structures in England: a perfect model or a challenging invention?

The structure employed in England for referees and elite referees is something which has evolved as the game of Association Football has developed over time. This referee promotion, support and management system has changed more rapidly since the inauguration of the Premier League and latterly since the introduction of ‘full-time’ or ‘professional’ referees. The change in the promotion and support for elite referees has necessitated changes to that management structure at the elite level in particular. This article has utilized historical research to analyse the changes to these structures alongside semi-structured interviews as a means of analysing this evolving network for elite referees. Findings indicate that support for the changes which have occurred in elite refereeing regarding the establishment of ‘full-time’ referees are opposed, with alternating views also encompassing the current structure employed for managing elite referees in England and the pathways utilized for referee promotion.     

To be or not to be an excellent football referee: different experts’ viewpoints

Football is central to the lives of countless individuals around the globe. While most of the attention of those passionate about the sport is focused on the players, football referees are often just as important in shaping the outcome of the games. Therefore, research is increasingly examining the role of referees. Even so, our understanding of the factors that create an excellent football referee is still scarce.

Based on our analysis of the opinions of 24 football experts, we demonstrate the multidimensionality of excellence in the performance of football referees. From a Categorical Principal Components Analysis (CatPCA), we were able to pinpoint that football referee excellence is shaped by three distinct dimensions: individual preparation, game preparation and game management. Additionally, we were able to see if these perceptions were different from individuals “within” the game versus those “outside” the game. Namely, we used CatPCA to graphically display the main correlations between the latent dimensions of football refereeing performance and the “inside” and “outside” perspective of the game. The findings of our work contribute towards the knowledge of the factors that shape football referee excellence, while also highlighting areas in need of additional research attention.     

Bribing Referees: The History of Unspoken Rules in Chinese Professional Football Leagues, 1998–2009

The topic of corruption in football has recently shifted from the periphery to the centre of social scientific attention. Although it is a topic of growing interest, research into corruption in football has been empirically limited and not adequately developed in theory. In this paper, the author studies referee bribery in Chinese professional football leagues, which would be helpful to compensate for the relative absence of experience and theories. By qualitatively analyzing primary and secondary sources, the author, using unspoken rules as a theoretical perspective, reviews referee bribery related to corruption in Chinese football. According to this study, bribing referees in Chinese professional football leagues between 1998 and 2009 was a common practice and deemed to be an unspoken rule by all football clubs. This paper identifies three forms of bribing referees to manipulate matches: paying off referees, manipulation of referees by CFA officials, and investing in emotional bonds. By describing bribe giving as an unspoken rule, the author looks at the widespread referee bribing and its tacit acknowledgement by clubs. This study focuses on examples related to Chinese football leagues; however, it also provides a framework under which corruption in international football can be understood and analyzed.     

排球裁判员理论分级考核基本原则及模式的构建

对排球裁判员执裁评价打分表进行分析,从裁判员管理的角度,对建立排球裁判员理论分级考核的基本原则及模式进行初步研究。结果显示：我国国家级排球裁判员,包括国家B级、国家A级、国家排协级考核内容有本质区别,应该根据每年国家级排球裁判员的执哨水平来确定来年的考核方案与重点。制定科学合理的动态理论考核方法,对提高我国排球裁判的整体水平有重要的意义。     

试论裁判员对足球比赛气氛的控制

就足球场上气氛变化的原因 ,以及气氛遭到破坏的几种情况 ,提出了裁判员合理运用规则 ,控制比赛气氛的途径与方法 ,以利于裁判员控制足球比赛 ,使足球比赛得以公平顺利进行     

论初级裁判员临场执法错漏判问题

现代足球比赛是快速、富于竞争、充满激情的竞赛,为了取胜夺标,比赛双方在身体、技术、作风、心理、战术思想的对抗越演越激烈,对抗性已成为现代足球运动发展趋势。同时,对足球裁判员的要求也越来越高,足球裁判员在比赛中判罚的准确性对比赛的顺利进行至关重要。足球裁判员是足球场上的组织者和法官。裁判员的水平直接影响着足球比赛的质量,对犯规准确性的判罚是衡量裁判员水平的标准。本文采用调查访问及问卷调查法,对初级裁判员临场执法的错漏判因素进行探讨。结果发现存在理论与实际判罚脱离、判罚降格处理、红黄牌亮出等等问题。找出不利裁判员准确判罚的因素加以研究,对提高足球裁判员水平有着重要的促进作用。     

重视高师体育专业篮球裁判能力的培养

篮球运动的快速发展 ,需要一支相匹配的裁判队伍 ,但目前市县以下地区 ,特别是普通中学裁判人员较少 ,水平偏低 ,因此培养具有一定专业水平的等级裁判员 ,对推动篮球运动的正常开展 ,推动全民健身运动的全面实施 ,是非常必要的。     

Sources of stress,burnout and intention to terminate among rugby union referees

We examined sources of stress, burnout and intention to terminate among rugby union referees. Questionnaires were returned by 682 of 1175 referees (58%) from Wales, Scotland and England. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed four correlated sources of stress factors (performance concerns, time pressure, interpersonal conflict and fear of physical harm), which accounted for 49.6% of the variance. Referees believed the first three factors to be mildly related to their stress. They believed fear of physical harm to be unrelated to their stress. A structural model hypothesizing that time pressure and interpersonal conflict predict burnout, and that age and burnout predict intention to terminate refereeing, fit the observed data. The goodness-of-fit index for this model was 0.96. Our results and those of other studies indicate that interpersonal conflict and time pressure are common sources of stress for sport officials and are frequently related to their burnout experiences. Also, age and burnout are frequently, although only marginally, related to intention to terminate.