Academic underachievement among children with epilepsy: proportion exceeding psychometric criteria for learning disability and associated risk factors

This study assessed rates of learning disabilities (LD) by several psychometric definitions in children with epilepsy and identified risk factors. Participants (N = 173, ages 8-15 years) completed IQ screening, academic achievement testing, and structured interviews. Children with significant head injury, chronic physical conditions, or mental retardation were excluded. Using an IQ-achievement discrepancy definition, 48% exceeded the cutoff for LD in at least one academic area; using low-achievement definitions, 41% to 62% exceeded cutoffs in at least one academic area. Younger children with generalized nonabsence seizures were at increased risk for math LD using the IQ-achievement discrepancy definition; age of seizure onset and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were risk factors for reading and math LD using low-achievement definitions. Writing was the most common domain affected, but neither ADHD nor seizure variables reliably identified children at risk for writing LD. Although children with earlier seizure onset, generalized nonabsence seizures, and comorbid ADHD appear to be at increased risk for some types of LD by some definitions, these findings largely suggest that all children with epilepsy should be considered vulnerable to LD. A diagnosis of epilepsy (even with controlled seizures and less severe seizure types) should provide sufficient cause to screen school-age children for LD and comorbid ADHD.     

A nationwide epidemiologic modeling study of LD: risk, protection, and unintended impact

Through multiple logistic regression modeling, this article explores the relative importance of risk and protective factors associated with learning disabilities (LD). A representative national sample of 6- to 17-year-old students (N = 1,268) was drawn by random stratification and classified by the presence versus absence of LD in reading, spelling, and mathematics according to ability-achievement discrepancies or low achievement levels. The dichotomous classifications were regressed on sets of explanatory variables indicating potential biological, social-environmental, and cognitive factors, problem behavior, and classroom learning behavior. Modeling revealed patterns of high risk for male students and students evincing verbal and nonverbal ability problems and processing speed problems. It was shown that, absent controls for cognitive abilities (such as provided by the ability-achievement discrepancy definition), definitions keyed to low achievement will substantially overidentify ethnic minority and disadvantaged students and will be confounded by significantly higher proportions of students who display oppositional and aggressive behavior problems. Alternatively, good learning behaviors uniformly provide substantial reduction in the risk for LD.     

Teaching About Adaptation: Why Evolutionary History Matters

Adaptation is one of the central concepts in evolutionary theory, which nonetheless has been given different definitions. Some scholars support a historical definition of adaptation, considering it as a trait that is the outcome of natural selection, whereas others support an ahistorical definition, considering it as a trait that contributes to the survival and reproduction of its possessors. Finally, adaptation has been defined as a process, as well. Consequently, two questions arise: the first is a philosophical one and focuses on what adaptation actually is; the second is a pedagogical one and focuses on what science teachers and educators should teach about it. In this article, the various definitions of adaptation are discussed and their uses in some textbooks are presented. It is suggested that, given elementary students’ intuitions about purpose and design in nature and secondary students’ teleological explanations for the origin of adaptations, any definition of adaptation as a trait should include some information about its evolutionary history.     

美国学习不良的概念及发展

通过分析美国一些有代表性的学习不良定义 ,得到对学习不良概念的轮廓性认识。但学习不良的本质目前还没能在定义中被清晰地揭示出来 ,多种定义共存是这一领域的现状 ,发展新定义的各种尝试亦在不断进行中。     

避税的定义及与其相关概念的关系

避税的定义和性质,在理论上争论较多。我国目前对避税的概念在法律上也未作表述,只散见于一些税收的政策文件和理论探讨文章中。由于对避税的定义不同,使得它与税务筹划、税收筹划、节税等其他相关概念之间关系的表述也有所不同,学术界有着各种各样的观点。从各国的法律界定和税收实践看,也存在较大的差异,从而导致不同的理论在对待避税问题的处理上也是不同的。从各种规避税务的理论分析,税收筹划、税务筹划、节税和避税的定义实际上既有联系又有区别。避税应具有非违法性、筹划性、收益性和权利性的特点。     

The field of educational technology as reflected through its definitions

The purpose of this article is to examine how, over time, the major definitions of the field of educational technology have reflected changes in the field itself. Major definitions from the early 1900s through 1994 are reviewed and compared. Each definition is discussed in terms of the events and ideas that were current at that time. Major changes in the field, as reflected by the definitions, are identified and thoughts regarding future definitions are presented.     

THE CHALLENGE OF QUALITY PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

This paper argues that, notwithstanding a few major exceptions, the modern commitment to studying educational thinking and practice in premodern Jewish societies has not been particularly intense, despite widespread agreement as to the importance of education in premodern Jewish life. Some suggestions for this lacuna are discussed in this article. In particular, it is urged that a major part of the problem lies in the definition of Jewish education and that—were definitions of Jewish education altered—a much wider swath of research would be seen to involve important aspects of the premodern Jewish educational enterprise.     

汉英名物词基义释义比较——基于《现代汉语词典》(第五版)和《柯林斯高阶英语词典》

《现代汉语词典》和《柯林斯高阶英语词典》都是语文性词典,这就决定了他们对名物词的基义释义存在着一些相同点,释义都简明通俗,都抓住了意义的基本特征,都采用词典定义的释义方法等,这些相同点也是由这两部词典的语文性决定的。语文性的不同表现使两部词典在名物词基义释义上存在着细微的差异,对名物词释义给出的区别特征多少不同,释义时用什么事物做描述不同,释义结构长短不同等,这些细微的差异是由于民族差异性造成的,是两部词典名物词释义语文性的不同表现。     

汉字形体讹变浅说

尽管人们对讹变现象已有不少的讨论,但人们对讹变这一术语的界定却有很大分歧,其中最有代表性的有非常规演变说、错误演变说和误解演变说等。这些说法既有其合理的一面,又都存在一定的片面性。我们综合各家定义的合理因素,给讹变作出了相对科学的界定,并在此基础上分析了讹变产生的各种原因,对讹变所造成的结果进行了公允的评价。     

教育中的兴趣概念

兴趣的三个定义,在解释力上依次递进,分别对应于不同的作用机制以及教育建议。其中,作为事物属性的兴趣,要求教师研究教学素材,在苦学与乐学传统中间做选择。作为目的的兴趣,要求教师研究学生,提供支持条件,引导和满足学生的需求。这两个定义,都没有正面回答在兴趣状态下,学习者心理感受的性质问题。阿诺德的兴趣定义强调,在兴趣状态下个人感受到的是紧张。这种紧张状态,可以推动学习活动的进展。这个定义,较为圆满地刻画了兴趣促进学习的作用机制。基于此,我们对学习活动的理解需要更新。一线教师们也可以据此调整自已的工作。     

South Korean Perspective on Learning Disabilities

In the context of the educational system and the nature of special education in South Korea, I describe policy, practice, and research about children with learning disabilities (LD). Recently, the study of LD has attracted professionals from multiple disciplines including general and special education, medicine, psychology, and social work. In Korea, the field of LD has developed rapidly over a brief period, but there are many problems to be solved in the near future. In particular, the field of LD in Korea lacks: (a) consensus about a conceptual definition, (b) a clear set of criteria for identifying students with LD, (c) lack of assessment instruments for identifying LD, and (d) general low understanding or misunderstanding of students with LD among teachers and parents.     

University faculty attitudes and knowledge about learning disabilities

ABSTRACT

Adults with learning disabilities (LD) constitute one of the fastest growing populations of students attending institutions of higher education. Faculty members play an important role in the adjustment and success of these students. The current study investigated the perceptions towards LD of faculty members at a public university in Israel. Specifically, the study examined the level of contact, attitudes, knowledge, and training of faculty members with respect to students with LD. The results demonstrated that faculty members overall had a significant amount of contact with and held positive attitudes towards students with LD. However, it appeared that faculty members would benefit from information regarding the current definition of LD, related legislation about LD and other disabilities, and training and support services for LD. Implications for practice and further research are discussed.     

Teacher perceptions of differences among elementary students with and without learning disabilities in referred samples

Current referral and identification procedures for students with learning disabilities (LD) have been criticized on conceptual and procedural dimensions, including difficulties in operationalizing the definition and in making eligibility decisions that are data based. Recognizing these difficulties, the Texas Education Agency appointed a task force to examine various issues associated with the identification, assessment, and programming of students with LD. Task force members recognized the need to identify classroom behaviors that differentiate students with LD from their non-disabled peers. Two scales of 83 items each were devised and piloted in 70 school districts. Five significant factors or subscales were identified through discriminant factor analyses. Two subscales and 18 individual items discriminate students later classified as LD and those referred but not subsequently classified as LD. Results are discussed, with implications for further investigation of behaviors that distinguish students with and without LD.     

Discrepancy formulas and classification and identification issues that affect diagnoses of learning disabilities

The identification of learning-disabled students has been plagued by the use of definitions that are conceptually and operationally incongruent and by classification systems that are inconsistent with identification procedures. The variety of methods and formulas used results in differing rates of identification and diverse findings for the same samples of students. The advantages and disadvantages of the most common discrepancy formulas and the multiple regression discrepancy method are compared. Both the educational significance and the statistical significance of test scores should be taken into consideration during the identification process, and consonance between LD definitions and identification criteria must be achieved in order to reduce the variance that occurs with LD classification.     

Issues in the definition of child sexual abuse in prevalence research

Despite efforts to promote uniform criteria for defining child sexual abuse, there are still variations in the definitions adopted by individual researchers. This paper focuses on four representative studies, describes differences in the definitions used and examines how such differences may contribute to discrepancies in the estimated prevalence of abuse. Similarities and dissimilarities are identified in several areas: the upper age limit for child sexual abuse, the criteria used to define a given sexual experience as abusive, the inclusion or exclusion of experiences involving age peers, and the use of different criteria for incidents occurring during adolescence. Prevalence rates from one study, which used a slightly less restrictive definition of abuse, were recalculated based on the definitions of other researchers. This resulted in a 14% decrease in the number of individuals identified as abused. While this is a substantial change, it accounts for only a portion of the discrepancy in prevalence rates, suggesting that other factors, such as methodological differences, need to be examined with regard to their impact on prevalence rates. Historical and legal issues pertaining to the definition of child sexual abuse are also discussed.     

Psychometric approaches to the identification of LD: IQ and achievement scores are not sufficient

Simulated data were used to demonstrate that groups formed by imposing cut-points based on either discrepancy or low-achievement definitions of learning disabilities (LD) are unstable over time. Similar problems were demonstrated in longitudinal data from the Connecticut Longitudinal Study, where 39% of the children designated as having LD in Grade 3 changed group placement with repeated testing in Grade 5. These results show that the practice of subdividing a normal distribution with arbitrary cut-points leads to instability in group membership. Approaches to the identification of children as having LD based solely on individual test scores not linked to specific behavioral criteria lead to invalid decisions about individual children. Low-achievement definitions are not a viable alternative to IQ-discrepancy definitions in the absence of other criteria, such as the traditional exclusions and response to quality intervention. If we accept the premise of multiple classes of low achievers, then we must develop identification systems that are valid and abandon systems whose only merits are their historical precedence and convenience.     

Exploring Mathematical Definition Construction Processes

The definition of ‘definition’ cannot be taken for granted. The problem has been treated from various angles in different journals. Among other questions raised on the subject we find: the notions of concept definition and concept image, conceptions of mathematical definitions, redefinitions, and from a more axiomatic point of view, how to construct definitions. This paper will deal with ‘definition construction processes’ and aims more specifically at proposing a new approach to the study of the formation of mathematical concepts. I shall demonstrate that the study of the defining and concept formation processes demands the setting up of a general theoretical framework. I shall propose such a tool characterizing classical points of view of mathematical definitions as well as analyzing the dialectic involving definition construction and concept formation. In that perspective, a didactical exemplification will also be presented.     

Error Analysis of Mathematical Word Problem Solving Across Students with and without Learning Disabilities

Solving word problems is a common area of struggle for students with learning disabilities (LD). In order for instruction to be effective, we first need to have a clear understanding of the specific errors exhibited by students with LD during problem solving. Error analysis has proven to be an effective tool in other areas of math but has had little application to errors in word problems. Using an error analysis approach, this study aimed to investigate in depth the various types and frequency of errors made by students with LD and their AA peers during math problem solving. The resulting similarities and differences between the two groups of students are discussed with insight into underlying cognitive processes, and implications for future research.     

Developing a Framework for Analyzing Definitions: A study of The Feynman Lectures

One important purpose of a definition is to explain the meaning of a word. Any problems associated with a definition may impede students' learning. However, research studies on the definitional problems from the perspective of physics education are limited. Physics educators may not be aware of the nature and extent of definitional problems. As an example, The Feynman Lectures of Physics suggest that there are at least four problems of definition: precision, circularity, context and completeness in knowledge. Feynman had the tendency of mentioning the words ‘define’ and ‘definition’ and discussing the problems of definition: they can be insightful, or challenge the conventional, preconceived notions of many physical concepts. One benefit of this study is that a framework can be developed to improve statements of definitions. This framework may guide educators or students to analyze the knowledge that is embedded in a definition. In the future, the learning of definition need not be content-oriented, but problem-based instead, with the help of definitional problems. Therefore, the use of these problems of definition in lessons can be an interesting area for future physics education research. Furthermore, we should be cognizant of inadequacies or inaccuracies in definition that may result in alternative conceptions.     

An examination of an implementation of the simple difference score distribution model in learning disability identification

An important part of the PL 94–142 learning disability (LD) definition is the requirement that a child manifest a discrepancy between ability and achievement to be eligible for special education services. Because the language used in PL 94–142 is generic, it has been left to each state to determine how this discrepancy criterion is to be implemented. Subsequently, numerous discrepancy formulas have been proposed, and many of them have been rejected as statistically unsound. In response to this professional paralysis, and faced with continued increasing LD enrollment, the California State Legislature took matters into its own hands and passed legislation mandating the use of the simple difference score distribution model as part of the state LD eligibility criteria. This study examines the implementation of this procedure in six California school districts. The results revealed that the IEP teams' placement decisions were influenced by the students' discrepancy scores, but that prereferral status (initial evaluation vs. reevaluation) was a better predictor of postevaluation special education status. Shortcomings of this discrepancy procedure and implications for the IEP team decisionmaking process are discussed.