Experimental identification of social learning in wild animals

Field experiments can provide compelling demonstrations of social learning in wild populations. Social learning has been experimentally demonstrated in at least 23 field experiments, in 20 species, covering a range of contexts, such as foraging preferences and techniques, habitat choice, and predator avoidance. We review experimental approaches taken in the field and with wild animals brought into captivity and note how these approaches can be extended. Relocating individuals, introducing trained individual demonstrators or novel behaviors into a population, or providing demonstrator-manipulated artifacts can establish whether and how a particular act can be socially transmitted in the wild and can help elucidate the benefits of social learning. The type, strength, and consistency of presented social information can be varied, and the provision of conditions favoring the performance of an act can both establish individual discovery rates and help determine whether social information is needed for acquisition. By blocking particular avenues of social transmission or removing key individuals, routes of transmission in wild populations can be investigated. Manipulation of conditions proposed to favor social learning can test mathematical models of the evolution of social learning. We illustrate how field experiments are a viable, vital, and informative approach to the study of social learning.     

Experimental studies of animal social learning in the wild: Trying to untangle the mystery of human culture

Here I discuss how studies on animal social learning may help us understand human culture. It is an evolutionary truism that complex biological adaptations always evolve from less complex but related adaptations, but occasionally evolutionary transitions lead to major biological changes whose end products are difficult to anticipate. Language-based cumulative adaptive culture in humans may represent an evolutionary transition of this type. Most of the social learning observed in animals (and even plants) may be due to mechanisms that cannot produce cumulative cultural adaptations. Likewise, much of the critical content of socially transmitted human culture seems to show no parallel in nonhuman species. Thus, with regard to the uniquely human extent and quality of culture, we are forced to ask: Are other species only a few small steps away from this transition, or do they lack multiple critical features that make us the only truly cultural species? Only future research into animal social learning can answer these questions.     

Social learning in new Caledonian crows

New Caledonian (NC) crows are the most sophisticated tool manufacturers other than humans. The diversification and geographical distribution of their three Pandanus tool designs that differ in complexity, as well as the lack of ecological correlates, suggest that cumulative technological change has taken place. To investigate the possibility that high-fidelity social transmission mediated this putative ratchet-like process, we studied the ontogeny of Pandanus tool manufacture and social organization in free-living NC crows. We found that juvenile crows took more than 1 year to reach adult proficiency in their Pandanus tool skills. Although trial-and-error learning is clearly important, juveniles have ample opportunity to learn about Pandanus tool manufacture by both observing their parents and interacting with artifactual material. The crows’ social system seems likely to promote the faithful social transmission of local tool designs by both favoring the vertical transmission of tool information and minimizing horizontal transmission. We suggest that NC crows develop their Pandanus tool skills in a highly scaffolded learning environment that facilitates the cumulative technological evolution of tool designs.     

Kindling fires: examining the potential for cumulative learning in a Journalism curriculum

This study investigated context-dependency of learning as an indicator for students' potential to continue learning after graduation. We used Maton's theoretical concepts of ‘cumulative’ and ‘segmented’ learning, and ‘semantic gravity’, to look for context-independent learning in students' assessments in a Journalism curriculum. We postulated whether the curriculum constrained or enabled cumulative learning. Students' responses to assessments were coded by their degree of context-dependency, or semantic gravity. We found that, firstly, students are overly successful in producing context-dependent answers but struggle to deliver context-independent responses. Secondly, students were not effective when they used higher level knowledge principles without the foundation of lower level ones. Lastly, the marking criteria were encouraging markers to reward context-dependent answers over context-independent ones. This study has implications for educators interested in curriculum design that enables cumulative learning in discipline specific contexts.     

Co-regulation of learning in computer-supported collaborative learning environments: a discussion

This discussion paper for this special issue examines co-regulation of learning in computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) environments extending research on self-regulated learning in computerbased environments. The discussion employs a socio-cognitive perspective focusing on social and collective views of learning to examine how students co-regulate and collaborate in computer-supported inquiry. Following the review of the articles, theoretical, methodological and instructional implications are discussed: Future research directions include examining the theoretical nature of collective regulation and social metacognition in building models of co-regulated learning; expanding methodological approaches using trace data and multiple measures for convergence and construct validity; and conducting instructional experiments to test and to foster the development of co-regulated learning in computer-supported collaborative inquiry.     

Raising the bar on studying cultural evolution

Sasaki and Biro (2017, Nature Communications, 8, 15049) show that pairs of pigeons can increase the efficiency of their homing routes over several ‘generations’ in which pair members are gradually replaced by naïve birds. Their findings show that socially transmitted cumulative alterations of behavior are not unique to humans and suggest a way to examine potential mechanisms of cultural evolution.     

Power of Two: The Impact of 2 Years of High Quality Teacher Child Interactions

The current study focuses on the cumulative effect on children’s early learning outcomes of the quality of teacher–child interactions over multiple years during early childhood. Using propensity score matching to minimize selection bias, we compared the academic outcomes of children who experienced consistently high-quality or consistently low-quality teacher–child interactions, as defined by the Classroom Assessment Scoring System, during prekindergarten and kindergarten. Research Findings: Results indicated statistically significant differences in directly assessed language and literacy skills between children who experienced consistently high- and consistently low-quality instructional support. This was true after just 1 year, and gains were even greater for children who experienced high levels of instructional support over 2 years. Emotional support and classroom organization were not associated with children’s academic learning. Practice or Policy: Although children experience cumulative benefits in response to high-quality instructional supports over 2 years, relatively few children have access to such opportunities. We discuss these results in light of limited consistency in children’s experiences over the early school years and the presence of selection bias.     

Clay Modelling and Social Modelling: effects of interactive teaching on young children's creative artmaking

In this project, 28 6‐year‐olds were taught skills involved in artistic claywork using principles of social modelling and cognitive learning in a classroom situation, over a series of six lessons. A further 28 students, serving as controls, were taught according to the normal art curriculum. The students’ clay models were photographed on pre‐test and post‐test, and rated by three expert judges (professional artists familiar with children's artwork) blind to treatment conditions. The cognitive social learning group evidenced strong gains on measures of creativity as defined by approximation to a three‐dimensional form, technical competency, decorative competency and aesthetic appeal. The control group students failed to evidence any significant change in rated creativity.     

Distinguishing social and asocial learning using diffusion dynamics

Theoretical models predict that the cumulative number of individuals displaying a socially learned novel behavior will follow an accelerating pattern over time, whereas asocial processes have been associated with linear or decelerating functions. This raises the possibility that the shape of the diffusion curve may reveal something about the learning processes involved. If true, this would be particularly useful for identifying social transmission in observational field studies. Published data are reviewed and are found to provide limited support for this view. The use of accelerating curves as a diagnostic is challenging because (1) alternative theoretical models make similar predictions, (2) clear supporting empirical data are lacking, and (3) practical considerations frequently make accurate construction of the diffusion curve difficult.     

Studying children’s social learning experimentally “in the wild”

Diffusion studies are taking us a step closer to understanding social learning and cultural transmission in young children. The first half of this article presents a review that focuses on four main cultural issues addressed by diffusion studies: (1) horizontal transmission, including child-to-child learning; (2) learning in children’s everyday environments (“in the wild”); (3) the experience of multiple demonstrations and attempts at mastering new tasks; and (4) the iterative process of learning across multiple cultural “generations.” The second half of the article introduces an open-diffusion experiment. After an initial asocial-learning phase in which children had the chance to discover two possible solutions to a puzzle box, the box was brought into the children’s playgroup, thus allowing observational learning. Although variation of method use occurred in the asocial-learning phase, by the end of the second day of the open diffusion, the group had converged on a single method. The open-diffusion approach allowed the documentation of social interactions not seen in the dyadic studies typical of the field, including both coaction and scrounging, the significance of which for cultural transmission is discussed.     

A Virtual Learning Environment for Part-Time MASW Students: An Evaluation of the WebCT

This study aims to evaluate the perception of a cohort of social workers studying for a part-time master's program in social work in using the popular Web-based learning platform-World Wide Web Course Tools (WebCT) as a complimentary method of teaching and learning. It was noted that social work profession began incorporating computer technology in its practice long after other professions. Its incorporation into social work teaching came even later. Questionnaires were used to collect views on computer-assisted learning (CAL) and the WebCT. Follow-up, individual in-depth interviews were conducted to obtain further qualitative data to understand the specific conditions under which a virtual learning environment becomes facilitative. It was found that in general students have a positive towards CAL and the WebCT, but they do not think that their education should be entirely Web-based. Teacher-student interactions were still essential to achieve the educational objectives. Nonetheless, the complementary value of the virtual learning environment, that is, a good measure of independence and productivity in their study depends on the students' level of competence and familiarity with the WebCT platform.     

Stability of Teacher Value-Added Rankings Across Measurement Model and Scaling Conditions

Value-added assessment methods have been criticized by researchers and policy makers for a number of reasons. One issue includes the sensitivity of model results across different outcome measures. This study examined the utility of incorporating multivariate latent variable approaches within a traditional value-added framework. We evaluated the stability of teacher rankings across univariate and multivariate measurement model structures and scaling metric combinations using a cumulative cross-classified mixed effect model. Our results showed multivariate models were more stable across modeling conditions than univariate approaches. These findings suggest there is potential utility in incorporating multiple measures with teacher evaluation systems, yet future research will need to evaluate the degree to which models recover known population parameters via Monte Carlo simulation.     

Crowding and Classroom Learning,

The effects of density and other situational factors on perceptions of and responses to crowding in classroom learning environments was examined in three separate and concurrent investigations. Experiment I examined the effects of various demographic variables, learning environments, and room design variables on perceptions of ideal, crowded, and intolerable learning conditions. Results indicated that all subjects agreed on what constitutes an ideal learning environment while perceptions of crowded and intolerable learning conditions depended on the subject’s vocational perspective (e.g., teacher, student, administrator, etc.). Effects were also observed for type of learning environment as well as room design variables (noise level, ceiling height, and esthetic quality of the room). These latter effects, however, were weaker and conditional on sex of subject. In Experiment II, the effect of two levels of density on classroom achievement was examined in the laboratory. Two levels of motivation and three levels of learning environment were also manipulated. Results were consistent with a modified form of Zajonc’s (30) theory of social facilitation which treated both density and motivation as manipulations of arousal. That is, a curvilinear relation between density motivation conditions and achievement was obtained indicating moderate levels of density may benefit student achievement. Finally, Experiment III examined classroom achievement as a function of class size over a 24-year period in two community school districts. Results indicated that over the period studied, classroom density was always within the ideal perceptual ranges established by Experiment I. Furthermore, a strong positive relation between classroom density and schievement was obtained. These findings were highly consistent with the modified version of Zajonc’s theory since ideal conditions should produce low to moderate arousal which should in turn facilitate performance. Implications based on the pattern of results for all three experiments were discussed.     

Exploring the Development of College Students' Situational Interest in Learning Science

This quasi-experimental study explores how student cumulative situational interest, short-term preference generated by particular conditions such as novel experiences can be developed into better individual interest, an enduring predisposition to engage in certain activity such as chemistry lessons. A continuous intervention of integrating novelty and aesthetic experience into teaching was used for the experimental group (n?=?64) while another class of 105 students studying another course of physical science without the intervention of novelty and aesthetics served as a comparison group. The analysis of covariance comparing the two group students' pre- and post-test perceptions of learning science revealed that the experimental group outperformed the comparison group in their perceptions of interest, enjoyment, and aesthetics. The weekly assessment of student situational interest indicated that the experimental group students' situational interests were well maintained by two leading learning activities: demonstrations and hands-on experiments with novelty and aesthetic experience. The above results provide empirical evidence to support the theory of interest development, which proposes that the development goes through a cumulative and progressive procedure.     

A Self-Instructional Approach to Environmental Decision Making: Focus on Land Use

Abstract

The following paper explores the conceptual models of thought which have recently emerged to confront the conventional approaches to analysis and solution of complex problems. Beginning with a critical attack on the tradition of specialization and reductionism, the author then summarizes several models which have originated from ecology, cybernetics, and systems theory. Throughout the paper is an emphasis on the potential contribution that such models can make to complex areas of policy and management, particularly within the environmental professions. Equally stressed is the fundamental importance of social learning and collective problem solving, particularly as engendered in the environmental professions as learning facilitators. The substance of the paper therefore promises a dual significance to environmental education—first, in the preparation of successive generations of individuals who are prepared to interpret, analyze, and respond adaptively to changing issues of great complexity; and second, to help develop the environmental professions as catalytic agents within society through which the public gains increasing awareness of and participation in critical policy debate. Through the evolving enhancement of the models exemplified by those described, the author asserts that both those working directly in environmental issues as well as society at large will benefit.     

Policy learning to internationalize European science: possibilities and limitations of open coordination

Mutual learning exercises have become increasingly employed in Europe over the last decade. This study examines the policy learning process in the area of internationalization of science and technology, which has been targeted as a priority for Europe. Through a case study of the open method of coordination expert group in this area, the analysis identifies policy learning drivers, mechanisms and outcomes operating at multiple levels, from individual to organizational. Different theoretical perspectives are employed to analyze the findings, highlighting both the social and instrumental aspects of policy learning. Using multiple conceptual approaches helps account for important contributions as well as limitations of open coordination for the internationalization of science and technology agenda in Europe.     

The challenges of establishing social learning spaces at a Johannesburg university student residence: Student views

This article reports on two cycles of a Participatory Action Research (PAR) study on student experiences of the process of establishing social learning spaces in a Johannesburg university student residence. We draw on Wenger’s (2009) notion of ‘social learning spaces’ to explore the manner in which students mediate their social and institutional identity, expose power imbalances in terms of decision-making and determine influences on their learning. We argue that learning is facilitated by social engagement and suggest that the conceptualisation and implementation of social learning spaces, although a complex and protracted process, is valuable for students’ social and academic development, particularly in a residence environment. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews, analysed using content analysis, and interpreted through a Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) lens. The findings point to the complexity of establishing social learning spaces (SLS) in a student residence environment with students experiencing multiple tensions in the process, including struggles with collaborative learning, difficulties in developing agency and the challenges of traversing power relations.     

Social Design Experiments: Toward Equity by Design

In this article, we advance an approach to design research that is organized around a commitment to transforming the educational and social circumstances of members of non-dominant communities as a means of promoting social equity and learning. We refer to this approach as social design experimentation. The goals of social design experiments include the traditional aim of design experiments to create theoreticallygrounded and practical educational interventions, the social agenda of ameliorating and redressing historical injustices, and the development of theories focused on the organization of equitable learning opportunities. To illustrate how we use social design methodology, we present two examples that strategically reorganized the sociohistorical practices of communities to expand learning as a key goal. We conclude with a discussion of the opportunities this approach creates for learning scientists to form effective research partnerships with community members, as well as the responsibilities it entails for creating a more just society.     

Familiarity and relatedness: Effects on social learning about foods by Norway rats and Mongolian gerbils

In recent experiments in which the social influences on feeding in Mongolian gerbils were investigated, observer gerbils acquired food preferences from conspecific demonstrators only if the demonstrators and observers were either related or familiar. Even then, the effects of demonstrator gerbils on observers’ food choices lasted less than 24 h. In similar experiments with Norway rats, the familiarity/relatedness of demonstrators and observers had little effect on social learning, and the demonstrators’ influence on observers’ food choices lasted many days. We examined the causes of these differences and found that, after observer gerbils interacted with either unfamiliar or familiar conspecific demonstrators that had been fed using procedures typically used to feed demonstrator rats, they showed long-lasting social learning about foods, whereas observer rats interacting with conspecific demonstrators that had been fed as demonstrator gerbils normally are fed showed effects of familiarity/relatedness to demonstrators on their social learning about foods. Procedural differences, rather than species differences, seem to be responsible for reported inconsistencies in social learning about foods by rats and gerbils.