A Test of the Relationships between Host and Home National Involvements and the Preferences for Intercultural Conflict Management Styles

This study focused on the relationships between host national (host interpersonal communication) and home national (ethnic interpersonal communication) involvements and preferences for conflict management styles in the context of a conflict with a member of the host culture. Two hypotheses that examined the relationships between these variables and the preferences for the integrating, the compromising, the avoiding, the obliging and the dominating styles were proposed. Survey data from two hundred and sixty-nine, international and exchange, students were analyzed. The results revealed that the level of host national involvement positively predicted the preferences for the integrating and the obliging styles, and the level of home national involvement positively predicted the preference for the avoiding style. These findings suggest the need to consider contextual influences in understanding the complexities that underlie intercultural communication and adaptation.     

Social support perceptions,network characteristics,and international student adjustment

Two hundred seventy-six international students reported their perceptions of social support from multiple sources (i.e., friends, family, institution, and significant other) as predictors of three facets of cross-cultural adjustment (i.e., general, interaction, and school-related adjustment). In addition, this study explored the incremental effects of cultural diversity and social network size on adjustment by asking international students to report members of their social network that they rely on for instrumental (i.e., task-oriented) and socio-emotional (i.e., relationship-oriented) support. Findings showed that certain sources of social support (i.e., friends and institution) were more strongly related to adjustment than others. Moreover, cultural diversity and the presence of host-nationals in student’s socio-emotional support network were significant predictors of cross-cultural adjustment. This demonstrates the importance of promoting initiatives that encourage host-national and sojourner interactions and diverse relationships within higher education to benefit cross-cultural adjustment.     

Preference for dating out-group members: Not the same for all out-groups and cultural backgrounds

The goal of the present study was to examine dating preferences across three different out-group backgrounds (race/culture/ethnic, religious, socio-economic status) in three different cultural settings (the United Kingdom, the United States, India). A second goal was to explore the role of social psychological factors (social approval, social identity, previous dating experience) in out-group dating preferences. Findings from an online study (n_UK = 227, n_US = 245, n_India = 220) revealed that participants were less willing to date individuals from religious out-groups than individuals from other race/culture/ethnic or socio-economic status out-groups. Individuals’ perceptions of approval from friends and family positively predicted out-group dating preference for all backgrounds and samples. How much individuals identified with their in-groups and whether they have previous experience dating someone from an out-group varied across outgroup backgrounds and samples in predicting out-group dating preferences. Together, the findings provide valuable insight into intergroup relations and reveal the importance of studying out-group dating preferences across different out-group backgrounds and samples.     

Social support and cultural distance: Sojourners’ experience in China

Previous research has pinpointed that social support from host, co-national, and other international friends plays a pivotal role in successful adaptation to a new culture, yet research on this topic pertaining to China is inadequate. As such, using a cross-sectional sample of sojourners (N = 199) in major Chinese cities, the current study examines the relationship between sojourners’ self-reports of social support from the three sources and two psychological adaptation variables (i.e., anxiety and well-being) as well as the moderating effect of objective cultural distance. Regression analysis indicates that perceptions of host and international support are significant negative predictors of anxiety and positive predictors of psychological well-being. In addition, cultural distance moderated these predictive associations: host support and international support had a stronger negative association with anxiety and host support had a stronger positive association with well-being for participants whose cultural distance to China was lower compared to those whose cultural distance was higher. This study enhances our understanding of the dynamic interplay between social support and cultural distance in cross-cultural adaptation research within a Chinese cultural context.     

A multidimensional analysis of homesickness based on the perceptions of international students in Turkey: A mixed method study

In this study, the perspectives of international students about homesickness and their adaptation to Turkish culture were explored. A multidimensional homesickness analysis based on the perception of international students in Turkish universities is presented. For this purpose, a mixed method was used. Two different techniques were used in the qualitative dimension: metaphor analysis and cognitive mapping. Metaphors were created by 60 international students studying at a state university in Turkey. Cognitive mapping data were collected from 22 international students. In addition, a survey model was used to procure quantitative data. Quantitative data were collected by using the Utrecht Homesickness Scale. The sampling group included 200 international students studying in eight different public universities. The inductive content analysis technique was used to analyse qualitative data and the metaphors related to homesickness were conceptualised as deprivation, difficulties, pain, and yearning. The metaphorical expressions revealed both the compelling homesickness of international students and socio-cultural adjustment difficulties in Turkey. The cognitive mapping concerning homesickness was highly similar to the metaphors. Cognitive mapping results aggregated as memories, cultural events, dishes, family members, friends, and hobbies. The quantitative results indicated high mean homesickness scores for ‘missing family’ and ‘missing friends’ sub-dimensions. Moreover, the mean scores were relatively low for the ‘adjustment difficulties’ and ‘loneliness’ sub-dimensions. Quantitative data revealed that the perceptions of homesickness differ depending on various socio-cultural factors. This study proposes that countries hosting international students should take psychological, social, and cultural adjustment measures, especially for freshmen students who experience more homesickness.     

Acculturation and cross-cultural adaptation: The moderating role of social support

Previous studies have consistently demonstrated the beneficial impacts of the acculturation strategy of integration and the detrimental impacts of the acculturation strategy of marginalization on adaptation outcomes. This study attempts to extend the existing literature by examining the potential moderating role of social support in the relationships between acculturation strategies and cross-cultural adaptation. Specifically, it was hypothesized that social support from family, local friends, and non-local friends would enhance the positive effects of the integration strategy and buffer the negative effects of the marginalization strategy on sociocultural and psychological adaptation. Participants were 188 Mainland Chinese sojourning university students in Hong Kong. Consistent with our predictions, social support from local friends was found to significantly moderate the effects of the integration and marginalization strategies on sociocultural and psychological adaptation. Unexpectedly, it was shown that social support from non-local friends significantly weakened the positive effect of the integration strategy on psychological adaptation. In addition, further analyses on the potentially domain-specific effects of acculturation strategies and social support on psychological adaptation showed that social support from local friends and non-local friends and acculturation strategies of integration and marginalization interacted to influence only one specific domain of psychological adaptation (mutual trust and acceptance). Implications of this study and possible explanations for the discordant findings are discussed.     

Social network sites and acculturation of international sojourners in the Netherlands: The mediating role of psychological alienation and online social support

Acculturation of short-term international sojourners, such as expats and international students, has received considerable attention from scholars in the past decades. Acculturation is commonly defined as the interplay between cultural maintenance, the sojourner’s desire to maintain their home culture identity, and host country participation, their desire to initiate contact with members of the host society. The present paper focuses on the role that Social Network Sites (SNS) play in the acculturation process of this group. Through a survey, we examined how 126 short-term sojourners in the Netherlands use SNS to interact with relations in both home and host country, and how this affects their cultural maintenance and host country participation. Furthermore, we examined psychological alienation and online social support as possible mediators. Our results show that on the one hand SNS contact with home country relations is positively related to online social support. On the other hand, it is also related to psychological alienation, which in turn is related to cultural maintenance. This shows that sojourners who keep in touch with friends and family at home also experience more loneliness and homesickness, and place more emphasis on their own cultural heritage. Finally, we found that SNS contact with host country relations predicts host country participation. Through online activities, sojourners are able to foster social interaction and strengthen friendships with locals.     

Emotional support on re-entry into the home country: Does it matter for repatriates’ adjustment who the providers are?

This study examines the influence of repatriates’ emotional support providers (home country friends/relatives, host country friends/relatives, and friends/relatives with expatriate experience) on both their psychological and sociocultural adjustment on re-entry into their home country. The study builds on social identity theory and examines the mediating role of the salience of repatriates’ international role identity. Predictions are tested using a quantitative survey data of 121 repatriates. The results show a positive indirect effect of the amount of support repatriates receive from home country friends/relatives on both dimensions of adjustment through a decreased salience of their international role identity. Furthermore, analyses show a negative indirect effect of maintaining supportive connections with host country friends/relatives on both psychological and sociocultural adjustment through an increased salience of repatriates’ international role identity. The results also show a direct effect of having or not having host country friends/relatives as emotional support providers in such a way that repatriates who do not have supportive host country friends/relatives are better psychologically adjusted upon re-entry. This study raises new questions about generally accepted advice for the adjustment strategies of expatriates, such as building connections with host country nationals.     

“Oh,I’m Here!”: Social Media’s Impact on the Cross-cultural Adaptation of Students Studying Abroad

This study investigates the perceptions and interpretations of social media and online communication by students engaged in study abroad programs. In-depth interviews were conducted and analyzed with 23 American and international students who completed or were engaged in a study abroad program. Results suggest that online communication enhanced the students’ experience, providing help with sociocultural skills, informational needs, relational bonds, and psychological well-being. Different platforms were preferred when communicating with friends versus family and intimates. Online communication between co-nationals from the student’s home country buffered both the sojourning student’s acculturative stress, and the stress and concern of distant family members.     

Cross-and same-race friendships of Vietnamese immigrant adolescents: A focus on acculturation and school diversity

The purpose of this study was to examine friendship developments of 153 Vietnamese immigrant adolescents who resided in an East Coast metropolitan area of the United States. We examined the influences of school diversity and acculturation on the quantity and quality of cross-and same-race friendships. Surprisingly, students who came from schools that are more diverse reported fewer cross-race friendships and lower levels of social support from their cross-race friends. American acculturation predicted greater levels of social support from cross-race friends. For same-race friendships, students who went to schools with higher percentage of Asian students reported more same-race friendships; however, percentage of Asian students was not a significant predictor of social support from same-race friends. Students who reported greater levels of Vietnamese acculturation reported greater levels of social support from their same-race friends. This study has implications for understanding the impact of school diversity and acculturation on friendship development of Vietnamese immigrants. Also, suggestions on how to better conceptualize and measure diversity are discussed.     

An analysis of friendship networks, social connectedness, homesickness, and satisfaction levels of international students

International students continue to grow in number worldwide, prompting researchers to look for ways to make the study abroad experience more fruitful. One avenue of research has focused on friendship formation, the significant role it plays in the study abroad experience, and the unique friendship combinations made possible by the study abroad experience. International students form friendships with individuals from their own country, from other countries, and from the host country. Research has found that international students often have more friends from their home country; however, research has also demonstrated a relationship between having more host country friends and satisfaction, contentment, decreased homesickness, and social connectedness. The current study looks to further explore these relationships through a social network lens by examining friendship network ratios, strength, and variability of the three friendship groups. A friendship network grid was developed to assess where international students’ friends are from and how strong those friendships are. Eighty four international students completed a survey examining the relationship between friendship networks, social connectedness, homesickness, contentment, and satisfaction. Contrary to prior research, international students did not report having a higher ratio of individuals from their home country in their friendship networks. However, international students with a higher ratio of individuals from the host country in their network claimed to be more satisfied, content, and less homesick. Furthermore, participants who reported more friendship variability with host country individuals described themselves as more satisfied, content, and more socially connected. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Social support for hispanics in the military

With a growing number of Hispanics entering the job market in the private, public, and military sectors, social support processes for Hispanics are becoming increasingly important. Sources of social support include the family, friends, co-workers, supervisors, mentors, and formal organizational programs. Areas of the military work context requiring social support are recruiting, training, and career development. The effectiveness of social support may be moderating by such variables as degree of acculturation, educational level, and organizational culture. The present article includes a review of the civilian and military literature on social support for Hispanics and an interview of Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute (DEOMI) Hispanic staff. Several recommendations are presented: actively cultivating Hispanic community networks for recruiting, considering rewards for bilingualism, increasing English proficiency training, making Hispanic mentors available, treating Hispanics as individuals in job assignments, recognizing the Hispanic family as an important consideration in military personnel actions, and creating a Department of Defense Hispanic data base.     

Is active social media involvement associated with cross-culture adaption and academic integration among boundary-crossing students?

Social networking sites (SNSs) have become significant communication platforms for numerous international students and their acculturation process. However, the underlying mechanisms of how and to what extent certain types of social media could facilitate cross-cultural adaption are remain under-investigated. Drawing on cross-culture adaption theory, the article seeks to address this gap by investigating the potential influences of differentiated patterns of social media usage on international students’ social support from host and home countries, and acculturation process from both psychological and behavioural perspectives. Data were gathered through a web-based survey from 298 Chinese international students studying in German universities. The outcomes demonstrate that international students’ social media use, especially active use, is associated with increased level of perceived social support from both host and home countries. Additionally, the findings verify that the positive association between active use and cross-cultural adaption is mediated by these two types of social capital. The article may make meaningful contributions to present acculturation studies and managerial practice for universities which target overseas markets.     

Bringing together acculturation theory and intergroup contact theory: Predictors of Flemings’ expectations of Turks’ acculturation behavior

The present paper explores Flemish majority members’ expectations concerning the acculturation of Turkish minorities. We studied two kinds of antecedents: majority members’ perceptions of Turkish minorities’ acculturation behavior and their experiences of intergroup contact. The possible mediating role of outgroup affect was also investigated. 247 Flemish high school students completed a survey. Data were analyzed using path analyses. Results show that positive contact experiences and perceiving that Turkish immigrants make efforts to engage in contact with the host group and/or to adopt the host culture are associated with less negative affective reactions towards Turkish migrants. Perceiving that Turkish immigrants maintain their heritage culture is associated with more negative affective reactions. Our results further revealed that increased negative affective reactions are associated with less support for culture maintenance and for contact with the host group but with a higher demand for host culture adoption. The present results also show that expectations of contact engagement and expectations of host culture adoption cannot be considered as equivalent. This implies that results from studies using Berry's conceptualization of acculturation expectations (Berry, 2001) and results from studies using Bourhis’ conceptualization of acculturation expectations (Bourhis, Moïse, Perreault, & Senécal, 1997) are not directly comparable. Our data also clearly disconfirm the orthogonal structure of the fourfold acculturation model for majority members’ acculturation expectations, suggesting that relying on the specific dimensions defining acculturation expectations may constitute a more valid approach to understand ongoing acculturation processes.     

Does social capital reduce the psychological distress and improve the wellbeing of asylum seekers? Evidence from Israel

The living difficulties of asylum seekers in receiving countries may impair their mental health. Based on the Social Capital Theory, the current study sought to identify social factors that might reduce their psychological distress and improve their wellbeing. A sample of 227 Darfuri asylum seekers in Israel aged 19–58 completed a questionnaire assessing the outcomes of psychological distress and wellbeing, and the predictors of post-migration living difficulties, number of asylum seeker and Israeli friends, perceived social support, and volunteering in community activity for asylum seekers. The findings show that whereas perceived social support was associated with reduced psychological distress and increased wellbeing (and the latter also associated with number of Israeli friends), the number of asylum seeker friends was associated with increased psychological distress and reduced wellbeing. Moreover, both factors moderated the association between living difficulties and psychological distress, that is, it was significant only at higher levels of these factors. Volunteering in community activity also moderated this association. The results suggest that having friends is not enough to improve wellbeing and may even have the opposite effect when friends share similar adversities. However, friends who are available to offer support can contribute to improved wellbeing. Similarly, volunteering in community activity may reduce the individual’s own welfare, as it exposes them to the adversities of others. Thus, while some social capital indicators are beneficial, others might have a detrimental effect. The results indicate the need to strengthen the social contacts of asylum seekers while paying attention to the potential cost.     

Conflict Management Styles: The Role of Ethnic Identity and Self-Construal among Young Male Arabs and Americans

This cross-cultural study compared young male Arabs’ and young male Americans’ perceptions of their ethnic identity, self-construal, and conflict management styles. Findings indicated that Arabs had stronger ethnic identity than Americans. Arabs were both more independent and interdependent than American participants. Conflict style comparisons demonstrated that Americans chose the emotional expression, dominating, and neglect styles more than Arabs, and Arabs chose the integrating, third-party help, and avoiding styles more than Americans. Participants did not differ in their preference of the compromising and obliging conflict management styles. In terms of the relationships among ethnic identity, self-construal, and conflict styles, little difference was found between the two cultural groups. The integrating, compromising, avoiding, and neglect conflict management styles were predicted by both independent and interdependent self construal for both cultural groups. The obliging and third-party conflict styles were positively predicted by interdependent self-construal. The dominating style was predicted by independent self-construal and ethnic identity. The only conflict style that was predicted differently among Arab and American participants was the emotional expression style. Among American participants, interdependent self-construal and ethnic identity predicted emotional expression style. For Arabs, independent self-construal predicted the emotional expression style.     

Negative side effects of music listening during cross-cultural transitions: Exploring how music hinders cross-cultural (re)adaptation among student sojourners

Although media use has been shown to have benefits in many contexts, including study abroad, it may also hinder cross-cultural transitions in academic sojourns. This study examines how music (as a form of communication media) may interfere with adaptation to the host culture and readaptation to the home culture. Focus groups and interviews with a total of 23 college students (twelve U.S. students and eleven international students) revealed that music hindered sojourners’ ability to interact in social settings, as well as amplified negative feelings while abroad and during reentry. Participants experienced these temporary side effects in conjunction with (or as part of) their purposeful and functional use of music to escape from the social environment and alleviate negative emotions.