Selectivity in Diagrams: reading beyond the lines

Diagrams are commonly used with beginning students of technical domains to introduce these learners to key aspects of the subject matter. Instructional benefit is intended to result from a diagram's simplification of the content into a highly selective form of graphic presentation. However, this selectivity may not benefit those lacking the domain‐specific knowledge necessary to construct from the diagram an appropriate mental representation of the depicted situation. A weather map diagram extension task compared the mental representation of subjects with high levels of knowledge in the domain of meteorology (meteorologists) with that of low knowledge subjects (non‐meteorologists). The meteorologists’ domain‐specific elaboration of the given markings suggested a mental representation that was not limited by the diagram's selectivity, but rather incorporated the broader meteorological situation implied by the diagram. In contrast, the non‐meteorologists’ domain‐general approach indicated a meteorologically impoverished mental representation that was largely driven by the given diagram's visuo‐spatial characteristics.     

短信息网关在校园管理系统中的应用

研究设计移动通信网关,通过信息转换和短信群发将校园信息管理系统拓展到移动通信平台,以提供更实时便捷的校园信息服务,是校园信息化管理的需要。移动通信网关开发的关键技术,包括基于AT指令的短信猫的开发、可靠的批量发送和流控技术等。要根据项目需求设计具有短信群发的网关软件,设计时还应考虑软硬件部署和实现方法等。     

Representational Tools in Computer-Supported Collaborative Argumentation-Based Learning: How Dyads Work With Constructed and Inspected Argumentative Diagrams

This article investigates the conditions under which diagrammatic representations support collaborative argumentation-based learning in a computer environment. Thirty dyads of 15- to 18-year-old students participated in a writing task consisting of 3 phases. Students prepared by constructing a representation (text or diagram) individually. Then they discussed the topic and wrote a text in dyads. They consolidated their knowledge by revising their individual representation. There were 3 conditions: Students could use either (a) the individual texts they wrote, (b) the individual diagrams they constructed, or (c) a diagram that was constructed for them based on the text they wrote. Results showed that students who constructed a diagram themselves explored the topic more than students in the other conditions. We also found differences in the way collaborating dyads used their representations. Dyads who engaged in deep discussion used their representations as a basis for knowledge construction. In contrast, dyads who engaged in only shallow discussion used their representations solely to copy information to their collaborative text. We conclude that diagrammatic representations can improve collaborative learning, but only when they are used in a co-constructive way.     

Diagram prediction and higher order structures in mental representation

Predictions of the patterns likely to appear on a weather map diagram one day later than those shown on a given map were drawn by meteorologists and non-meteorologists. Differences in secondary structures of the predicted patterns with respect to the spacing and alignment of graphic elements were consistent with the existence of fundamental differences in mental representation between the subject groups. Lack of expertise in the subject domain of the diagram was associated with the production of patterns containing meteorologically-arbitrary arrangements of graphic elements. It is suggested that science instruction should include explicit consideration of the higher order structures present in diagrams. Specializations: mental representation and processing of scientific diagrams, characteristics of explanatory illustrations, drawing and cognition, instructional design.     

Diagrammatic representation and event memory in preschoolers

This study investigated the use of diagrammatic representation as an aid for recalling a past event for 30 4–5‐year‐olds in their preschool year prior to commencing primary school. The children were randomly placed into one of two groups: ‘talkers’ (verbal memory) or ‘drawers’ (diagrammatic memory). They were interviewed individually, both one day and one month after the event that involved making a much‐needed tool for a game at their preschool. Both interviews were conducted by a familiar adult through three different levels of engagement—neutral, verbal and visual. Results showed that a combination of drawing and specific questioning (‘verbal’ level of engagement) facilitated better recall of detail than either drawing or talking independently. No significant differences regarding accuracy of responses were found between the two groups.     

Diagram information and its organisation in memory: Exploring the role of skill and experience

Two contrasting methods of investigation were used to characterise the basis upon which the mental representation of a scientific diagram was organised in individuals having different levels of experience and skill in the interpretation of this type of diagram. Each of these methods is described and several important methodological issues are discussed. In the first method (the Card Sort method), subjects performed a three-stage grouping of diagram elements in a card sorting task that produced an hierarchical ordering of the information constituting the diagram. In the second method (the Copy-Recall method), subjects copied then produced drawn recall of a given diagram. Measurements of the sequence in which diagram elements were produced and the time intervals between each production were used to infer the underlying cognitive structuring involved in the mental representation of the diagram information. Questions are raised concerning the way resulting data can be analysed and interpreted most effectively. Specializations: Mental representation and processing of scientific diagrams, characteristics of explanatory diagrams, visual aspects of problem solving, instructional design.     

A conversation about pedagogical responses to increased diversity in university classrooms

This paper presents a dialogue between an academic economist and an educational developer. It asks whether it is possible to teach in a way that works well for all students. The economist contends that teaching entails making a choice as to which students should benefit most—the more academically capable or the lower‐achieving students. He sees this as a question of social choice. The educational developer suggests that teaching can be organized such that all students can benefit optimally. The dialogue seeks to resolve this difference. It draws on the work of John Biggs, using his diagrammatic representation of the relation between student orientation, teaching method and level of engagement. Biggs debriefs the dialogue. He rejects the focus on particular students andargues rather that teaching should incorporate optimal degrees of freedom in learning activities and assessment, thus enabling levels of engagement for all students to be maximized.     

国外多媒体教学中学习者认知表征方式的理论

多媒体教学具有其理想功能,其实现的关键是客观上多元的刺激与学习者主观的表征方式的结合。许多认知表征理论为多媒体教学提供了理论基础和实践指导,多表现在知识的表征系统、表征资源和表征方法等方面。教师在设计和实施多媒体教学时,对于同时加工所需的感官通道的数量、知识的情境性、先前经验、信息的选择问题等方面应做良好的考量和设计。     

Relationships among computational performance,pictorial representation,symbolic representation and number sense of sixth‐grade students in Taiwan

Twenty classes in ten schools with 627 sixth‐grade students in five cities in Taiwan participated in this study. The research provides information on the performance differences among written computation, pictorial representation, symbolic representation and number sense. The results of One‐way ANOVA analysis indicate that significant difference was found among WCT, PRT, SRT and NST tests, with F=536.327, p=0.000. The a posteriori comparisons show for each pair (WCT vs PRT, WCT vs SRT, WCT vs NST, PRT vs SRT and SRT vs NST) significant difference at the 0.001 level (p=0.000), except for the pair comparison between PRT and NST. This implies that these Taiwanese students were highly skilled in written computation but their written skills were not equally transferred to use of non‐computational paths that depended on symbolic representation, pictorial representation and number sense to solve similar problems.     

“Reading” scientific diagrams: Characterising components of skilled performance

Conclusion The interpretation of scientific diagrams has been characterised as a complex process. This contrasts sharply with an apparently widespread view among producers and users of resources for science teaching that they are generally unproblematic and that their meaning is usually quite transparent. The continued currency of this view is a matter of concern, especially when resources for learning in science are now so heavily based on pictorial presentation. It is likely that students who are new to scientific diagrams as a pictorial genre will look at them in a manner that is quite different from the way they are seen by their teachers. What seems to a teacher to be a straightforward and clearly presented depiction of a scientific concept, process or structure may be a mysterious and impenetrable abstraction to a student. Whereas the teacher is able to identify readily the elements of a diagram and link them into a coherent, meaningful whole, the student may misunderstand what it is that is depicted and how the depicted entitles are related. A critical factor underlying such differences appears to be the extent and nature of the mental representation of student and teacher. Both of these aspects of the mental representation of scientific diagrams would probably have to be addressed if there are to be improvements in the development of students' diagram interpretation skills. It does not seem sufficient merely to give students a huge diet of diagrams and assume that the necessary reading skills are either present or will develop by themselves. Rather, a deliberate programme designed to develop well structured mental representations of scientific diagrams should accompany efforts to build up an extensive knowledge base about this highly specialised form of visual display. Such a programme should be accompanied by instruction that develops appropriate processing strategies that allow students to gain maximum value from the diagrams they encounter.     

Extracting information from an animation during complex visual learning

The construction of a high quality mental model from a complex visual display relies the capacity of learners to extract appropriate information from that display. Beginning students of meteorology complied written records of generalisations extracted from animated weather map sequences in order to prepare themselves for a subsequent prediction task. Analysis of these records revealed that much of the information extracted was perceptually salient rather than thematically relevant. This perceptual dominance effect was found for both visuospatial and temporal aspects of the display. The statements produced were deficient with regard to the causal explanations that would be necessary to build a satisfactory mental model of the depicted situation. These deficiencies involved both the proportion of causal material recorded and the attribution of causality on an everyday rather than a domain-appropriate basis. The limitations of the information extracted were interpreted as evidence of subjects’ use of selective attention to control cognitive load in a complex, demanding processing situation and the effects of their lack of domain-specific background knowledge. Contrary to prevailing orthodoxies, the results raise the possibility that in some circumstances, animations may not be instructionally superior to static depictions because the processing demands involved can have negative effects on learning.     

Biased representations of controversial information: Certainty and justification beliefs as moderators

Pre-existing beliefs bias mental representations of socio-scientific controversies in favour of the perspective(s) that endorse(s) them. Several conditions have been proposed to moderate such belief-biased mental representations of controversial information. The present study examined the effects of readers’ prior beliefs on their mental models of textual information on the level of situation-model and text-base representations. The study further investigated the extent that author status, readers’ certainty and justification beliefs moderate the effect of prior beliefs on the readers’ representations. Sixty-two undergraduate students of English as a foreign language read two texts that provided arguments for and against an established controversy in language education. A recognition task was used to assess their situation-model and text-base strengths. The results revealed that readers’ representations were biased towards the information that supported their beliefs at the level of the situation model but not at the level of the text-base. The results further revealed no main or moderating effects for author status on the interaction of beliefs and readers’ mental models of the information. However, readers’ certainty beliefs and beliefs about justification for knowing were shown to moderate the belief-biased representation of the controversial information.     

Task-dependent construction of mental models as a basis for conceptual change

Learning can be seen as a task-oriented process which often requires the reorganization of existing knowledge, usually referred to as conceptual change. This paper describes a theoretical framework for the analysis of conceptual change that considers conceptual knowledge as a generative cognitive tool for the creation of more specific mental representations — propositional symbolic structures and analog mental models. According to this view, conceptual change is based on a task-oriented interaction between these different kinds of mental representations. The assumption is made that it is possible to foster conceptual change by presenting to students well-defined tasks that stimulate the construction of elaborated mental models as well as an intensive interaction between these models and the corresponding propositional representations. In order to test this assumption an empirical study was conducted, in which subjects had to express their prior knowledge about a complex subject matter from the field of geography (time differences on the earth), which contained various conceptual deficits. The subjects were then randomly assigned to different groups who received the same learning material but had to solve different learning tasks requiring differently structured mental models. Afterwards, the subjects were asked to express their knowledge about the subject matter again and were tested for understanding with a comprehension test. The results support the view that a task-oriented interaction between propositional structures and mental models can help learners to evaluate the consistency of their conceptual knowledge. Accordingly, conceptual deficits result in the formation of mental models with an inadequate structure. Such deficits can be detected if the respective model is used in a sufficiently variable way, whereas they can remain unnoticed if it is used in a limited manner.     

Promoting complex systems learning through the use of conceptual representations in hypermedia

Studying complex systems is increasingly important in many science domains. Many features of complex systems make it difficult for students to develop deep understanding. Our previous research indicated that a function‐centered conceptual representation is part of the disciplinary toolbox of biologists, suggesting that it is an appropriate representation to help students develop deep understanding. This article reports on the results of two experiments that investigate how hypermedia using a conceptual representation influences pre‐service teachers' and middle school students' learning of a complex biological system, the human respiratory system. We designed two versions of instructional hypermedia based on the structure–behavior‐function conceptual representation. One hypermedia was function‐centered which emphasized the function and behavior of the system, whereas the other was focused on the structure of the system. We contrasted the instructional effectiveness of these two alternative conceptual representations. The results of both studies indicated that participants using the function‐centered hypermedia developed deeper understanding than those using the structure‐centered version. This proof‐of‐concept study suggests that the function‐centered conceptual representation is a powerful way to promote complex systems understanding. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 46: 1023–1040, 2009     

1:1 (Dis)section ‐ Learning through Full‐Scale Dissection and Transformations of Abandoned Buildings

The section is an essential tool for understanding, exploring, representing and communicating spatial relations, structure and materiality in architecture, design and engineering, and therefore a recurring topic in the curricula. The section itself is destructive of nature and incompatible with a built environment in use or under construction. Hence, students throughout their education meet the section in the form of diagrammatic representations, that is, as forms of meaning emptied from scale, spatiality and materiality. This article reports on a series of four workshops, held in the spring semesters from 2011 to 2014 for first‐year students at Aarhus School of Architecture. The aim was to provide first‐year students with an experience of the relation between the section as a diagrammatic representation and the materiality, structure and spatial relations of a concrete building. The climax of each workshop was a full‐scale dissection and transformation of an abandoned house. As we shall see, the workshops fulfilled not only the intended learning goals, but created an initially unforeseen and unique context for learning about the relations between building and place and introduced the question regarding depopulation of rural areas as a pertinent processional challenge. Beyond an educational value, the research project ‘Transformation on abandonment, a new critical practice?’ transpired from the workshops. This research project and the interplay between teaching and research are discussed in the last part of the article.     

论性格的全息心理特性

性格是人对现实的态度和行为方式中的比较稳定的独特的心理特征的总和，在个体心理学中具有核心意义。性格与认识、情感、意志等心理过程，与能力、气质等心理特征，与需要、动机、兴趣等个性倾向，以及与自我意识等其它心理现象密切联系。性格包含着其它所有心理现象的功能成分，反映着个体心理活动的功能特点。性格具有全息心理特性，性格应当成为心理学的研究核心。     

Processing multimedia material: Does integration of text and pictures result in a single or two interconnected mental representations?

We investigated whether individuals construct either two interconnected mental representations or a single mental representation that merges information from two representations when processing multimedia materials. Individuals memorized text-picture stimuli in four different versions that differed in the specificity of information contained in either text or pictures: general pictures/general sentences, general pictures/specific sentences, specific pictures/general sentences, and specific pictures/specific sentences. Afterwards, individuals decided whether they had previously seen the specific or the general version of the sentences and the pictures. Across two experiments, individuals more frequently falsely recognized the specific sentences after having seen general sentences/specific pictures. This indicates that individuals had integrated the specific picture information with the general sentence information into a single mental representation. No such effects were observed for picture recognition. The implications of these results for multimedia learning are discussed.     

现代健美操运动心象训练的效果研究

心象是以形象的方式储存在头脑的信息,它是人的知识表征的一种重要形式;而运动心象则是浮现人脑中的动作形象。现代健美操运动又是复杂多变的身体多部位动作,需要认真地研究心象在信息加工中的作用,提高健美操训练效果。