Including pupils with autistic spectrum disorders in mainstream schools

The number of pupils with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) being educated in mainstream schools is increasing. However, there is growing concern about their educational experiences. Research suggests that such pupils make easy targets for bullies, and are considered difficult to teach by teachers. Furthermore, pupils with ASD are more than 20 times more likely to be excluded from school than those without special educational needs. In light of such evidence, the aim of this article is to outline evidence‐based strategies to facilitate the presence, participation, acceptance and achievement of pupils with ASD in mainstream settings. The strategies are presented thematically, as follows: (i) challenge stereotypes and raise expectations, (ii) create order from chaos, (iii) promote peer understanding, (iv) develop social skills, (v) adapt academic subjects, and (vi) modify conversational language. These strategies are not intended to be completely comprehensive – rather, they are starting points on a journey towards inclusion for those with ASD.     

The deployment,training and teacher relationships of teaching assistants supporting pupils with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) in mainstream secondary schools

Growing numbers of pupils with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) are attending mainstream schools, and increasing numbers of additional staff are being deployed to support them. Recent research has cast doubt on the effectiveness of this support, by highlighting issues relating to deployment and training, and to relationships with class teachers. This study, conducted by Wendy Symes, who is a Research Associate at the University of Manchester, and Neil Humphrey, who is Professor of Education in the same university, interviewed 15 teaching assistants supporting pupils with ASD in four mainstream secondary schools in the north‐west of England to explore these issues. Analysis yielded several key findings. The majority of teaching assistants worked with just one pupil at a time and worked in a variety of lessons. Their role primarily involved helping pupils to stay focused and follow instructions. Many teaching assistants had no experience of ASD prior to starting their job. The amount of training received varied, but all felt that generic training about ASD was not helpful. A lack of time for joint planning with teachers was raised as a key concern. These findings are discussed in relation to the growing literature on inclusive education for pupils with ASD.     

The inclusion of pupils perceived as having social and emotional behavioural difficulties in mainstream schools: a focus upon learning

This article focuses upon the relationship between social and emotional behavioural difficulties (SEBD) and learning. It argues that, while inclusion is desirable in principle, it can be highly problematic in practice. Further, it explores the contested nature of the concept of SEBD and the nature of support for pupils categorised as such. The article draws upon a case study which evaluates a group work approach devised by the author to support pupils experiencing SEBD within a mainstream secondary school, within a deprived area. The study (N = 69) established benchmark measures relating to pupil attendance, discipline sanctions, attainment and pupil attitudes and followed the progress of the pupils until one to two years after completion of the intervention. The findings indicate that the intervention did not reduce the differential in performance in National Tests between the Support Group pupils and comparator groups but it did impact positively upon dispositions towards learning.     

Development of children with autism spectrum disorders in special needs education schools in the Netherlands: a three-year follow-up study

The purpose of the study was to investigate the development of symptomatology and academic growth of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) attending a special needs education school in the Netherlands as well as to explore the relationship between academic achievement and symptom reduction of those children. To this end a three-year follow up study was conducted by using multiple informants. The group of children with autism was compared with a group of children having other diagnoses but attending the same school. Results showed that teachers’ and parents’ perceptions about children’s symptomatology development differed significantly. Even though teachers reported a significant symptom reduction of ASD symptoms after two years of school attendance the parents of the same children did not. Furthermore, it was found that both groups of children had gains in different aspects of school-based cognitive skills; however, no association was found between symptom reduction and academic growth of the children. Implications of the study are discussed.     

Perceptions of friendship among adolescents with autism spectrum conditions in a mainstream high school resource provision

Establishing and maintaining friendships is frequently challenging for young people with autism spectrum conditions (ASC). However, few studies have explored influences on friendship development, meaning that knowledge of friendship formation processes remains limited at a critical point in social development. As friendship can impact on well-being and the success of educational inclusion, addressing this issue is important and timely. This study explores friendship among adolescents with ASC, and in particular the meaning and nature of friendship, including perceived influences on its development. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine participants: three adolescent students with ASC, a parent of each student and key teachers. Students were found to have an understanding of friendship, although parents often felt it was theoretical and did not correlate with their own experiences. All of the students expressed a desire for friendship and reported having experienced loneliness. Friendships tended to centre on structured activities such as computer games, which provided both support and obstacles for friendship development. Further individual and contextual influences included levels of maturity, understanding of social rules, school environment and peer acceptance. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to research and practice in educational settings.     

Listening to the views of those involved in the inclusion of pupils with Down's syndrome into mainstream schools

Debbie Johnson is a teacher who provides an account of her involvement in researching the inclusion of pupils with Down's syndrome over a number of years. Her work has not only increased her own understanding but has had a significant influence upon her practice, both as a class teacher and in her current advisory role. Writing in a highly personalised way, Debbie describes how she developed a systematic approach to collecting data and analysing this to provide her with insights into those factors which may encourage or inhibit inclusive practice.     

The use of drama to teach social skills in a special school setting for students with autism

For children with autism, social challenges may be both part of the disability and a barrier to accessing education. This article reports on a project that used drama to address such challenges by drawing on the social skills of non‐autistic peers in a special school setting. The article demonstrates how drama's flexibility may be harnessed in order to help students support each other's development of creative and communicative skills. Focusing on two children in particular, specific examples are given to illustrate how they participated in group work, made imaginative contributions to verbal and physical representations and engaged with abstract ideas. The project's outcomes suggest that, given a concrete structure and an invitation to collaborate, drama can be a powerful learning medium for children with autistic spectrum disorder. The conclusion reflects on the diverse meaning of inclusive practice that can be achieved within specialist settings.     

Facilitating the social participation of pupils with special educational needs in mainstream schools: A review of school-based interventions

Inclusive education of pupils with special educational needs (SEN) has become a global trend. However, a considerable number of studies have shown that mere enrolment in mainstream classrooms is not enough to support the social participation of pupils with SEN. These children are at risk of experiencing difficulties in their involvement with peers at school. Thus, the question arises of how social participation can be fostered in mainstream classrooms. A systematic review of 35 studies was conducted to investigate which interventions are effective in inclusive mainstream preschool and elementary classrooms. Teaching interaction strategies to typically developing pupils, group activities in the academic context (cooperative learning and peer-tutoring), support groups for pupils with SEN, and training paraprofessionals to facilitate social interactions, were found to improve the social participation of pupils with SEN in general education classrooms. Nevertheless, there is need for more intervention studies implementing a variety of strategies and including different groups of pupils with SEN.     

Living with autistic spectrum disorder: parental experiences of raising a child with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD)

The focus of the study was to explore parental experiences of raising a child with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). A mixed‐method approach consisting of questionnaires and semi‐structured interviews was used in order to elicit parental perspectives of raising a child with ASD. Two semi‐structured interviews were conducted with parents of children with ASD. Questionnaires were sent to parents of children with ASD in two special schools. The findings indicate that although each of the parents had a child with ASD, their experiences were all different. Many interesting accounts were documented and a wealth of information regarding the characteristic traits that children with ASD portray was recorded. The findings suggested that the majority of the parents experienced a low level of support from agencies and professionals. The general verdict was that of poor communication and a lack of understanding of parents' needs following formal diagnosis. Finally, a series of coping strategies were discovered ranging from family support to paid help.     

An investigation into an interaction programme for children on the autism spectrum: outcomes for children,perceptions of schools and a model for training

The objective of this study was to investigate a system of training designed by a Local Education Authority support service to promote interactive skill building with children on the autism spectrum. Using a case study approach, the study focused thematically upon outcomes for children, perceptions of schools regarding impact of the training programme and key features of the system of delivering training. Five schools (four primary mainstream and on primary special) which had completed training during a one‐year period participated in the research. Data was gathered using multi‐methods including questionnaires, semi‐structured interviews and document scrutiny. Findings indicate a number of positive outcomes for children, including enhanced communication skills and the development of friendships with peers. The model of training was perceived to be effective by all participants, with a focus upon increased staff confidence in order to become trainer of other members of staff. The training model comprises a number of features essential to effectiveness, including the development of partnerships between all stakeholders. The model of training is seen as a system through which continuation of interaction techniques in schools is promoted, initially with input from a local authority specialist, and with the aims of independent continuation of the programme and practices. This case study reflects the ability of support services to identify innovative ways of providing services, underpinned by the notion of promoting inclusive practices: this holistic package of support could serve as a model for other types of interventions with children with a range of needs. Conclusions indicate that involvement of children as active participants at the inception of the programme should be considered: further research ought also to include the voices of children in order to seek insights into the perceptions of the programme.     

Loneliness,friendship quality and the social networks of adolescents with high‐functioning autism in an inclusive school setting

By definition, children with autism have poor peer relationships despite age and ability. When children enter adolescence, social problems typically worsen and feelings of loneliness and isolation may emerge. Thus, the overarching goal of the current study is to examine the social–emotional relationships of adolescents with autism and their typically developing (TD) classmates. Participants included 20 adolescents, 7 adolescents with autism and 13 TD classmates. All participants were enrolled in a drama class at a regular education high school in the Los Angeles area. Results indicate that adolescents with autism experienced significantly more loneliness than their TD classmates, had significantly poorer friendship quality in companionship and helpfulness, and had significantly lower social network status than their TD classmates. In addition, 92.4% of TD adolescents had secondary or nuclear social network centrality, which means that those adolescents were significantly connected and recognised in their classroom social structure although 71.4% of the adolescents with autism were either isolated or peripheral in their classroom. These findings imply that although inclusion in regular classrooms may allow adolescents with autism to be involved in the social structure of their classroom, they experienced more loneliness, poorer friendship quality and social network status as compared with their classmates. These results suggest that, perhaps, more intensive social skills' interventions that focus on friendship development are needed in adolescents with autism.     

Supporting the inclusion of pupils with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties in the primary school: the role of teaching assistants

During the past ten years in the UK there has been a considerable increase in the number of teaching assistants (TAs) appointed to work alongside teachers in schools. A significant number of these colleagues are appointed to support pupils with special educational needs (SEN), including those with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). This paper reports on the ways in which the role of the teaching assistant in supporting pupils with SEBD has been developed in schools for pupils aged 7–11 years in one English Local Education Authority (LEA). It suggests that there are several models of support emerging and that the role of the teaching assistant is perceived as crucial to the effective inclusion of pupils with SEBD in mainstream classrooms.     

Provision for youngsters with autistic spectrum disorders in mainstream schools: what parents say — and what parents want

Relatively little research has focused on parental perceptions and experience of educational provision in mainstream settings for children and young people with autism. Much of that which has been undertaken (and certainly that which is most widely cited) has tended to rely on samples which may not be sufficiently representative. In the study reported here, Philip Whitaker, of the Children and Young People's Service in Northamptonshire sought the views of every parent or carer of a child with an autistic spectrum condition living within one English county. Almost half the parents of the 350 children attending mainstream schools responded to a questionnaire exploring their experiences, views, attitudes and levels of satisfaction. The analysis looks at the differences and similarities between the experiences and views of the 'satisfied' and 'dissatisfied' groups of parents.
Overall, 61% of respondents reported themselves satisfied with the provision being made for their children. The extent to which parents felt that school staff understood (and empathised) with their children's difficulties, and the perceived flexibility of the schools' responses to the children's needs were the factors which most sharply differentiated the two groups of parents. The extent and quality of reciprocal communication between home and school also seemed strongly associated with levels of satisfaction. The two groups of parents shared many concerns, with the schools' role in promoting social development and social relationships emerging as a high priority. Philip Whitaker discusses the implications of these findings for schools and for the development of local authority provision founded in mainstreaming.     

Inclusion in play: a case study of a child with autism in an inclusive nursery

This paper discusses the play interaction of a young child with autism and the strategies adopted by her teachers to facilitate her inclusion in and through play. The data are from an ethnographic case study in an inclusive nursery in the South of England spanning 6 months. The aim was to understand and describe the play of a child with autism in a naturalistic context. Methods included field and video observations and semi‐structured interviews conducted with the parents and teachers. Analysis of the data highlighted the teachers' strategies underpinned by a strong play ethos, a collaborative approach and a supportive curriculum framework. We argue that the case provides helpful data on what teachers can do to enable children with autism to be successfully included through play.     

The computer in the classroom: a medium for enhancing social interaction with young people with autistic spectrum disorders?

Angela Jacklin is a senior lecturer in education and director of student support at the University of Sussex. William Farr is a teacher at a primary school in Sussex, and a former MA student at Sussex University. In the project reported in this article, they worked together to consider how valuable the computer may be as a medium to enhance social interaction with pupils with autistic spectrum disorders. The research took place in a special school for pupils with severe learning difficulties in the South East of England and involved 12 children from the school's unit for pupils with autism. From this initial group, three pupils were selected for more focused study. Using a mix of qualitative data gathering and analysis stragegies, the research highlighted the importance of social interaction a round the computer and indicated that the computer could be a useful tool for enhancing social interaction. This was found to relate in part to the adult's ability to follow the child's lead, as well as the complex intermingling of events known as 'tricky mixes'. Where this happened, use of the computer appeared to result in more sustained and more positive interactions for young people with autistic spectrum disorders.     

Relationships between executive functioning and homework difficulties in students with and without autism spectrum disorder: An analysis of student- and parent-reports

Despite the fact that homework forms an important cornerstone of student development, many students fail to capitalize on the long-term benefits of doing homework. Several executive skills, including cognitive flexibility, monitoring and planning are suggested as prerequisites for the completion of homework. It follows that homework difficulties may relate to such executive functions. A group of particular interest in this respect is students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), as they are known to suffer from executive dysfunction. The present study examines the extent to which differences in homework difficulties of seventh and eighth grade students with (N = 100) and without ASD (N = 86) may relate to their level of executive functioning. Homework difficulties were examined with student and parent versions of the Homework Difficulties Questionnaire (HDQ) and executive functioning was examined with the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning (BRIEF). In contrast to students with ASD themselves, parents of students with ASD perceived their children to suffer from more homework problems than students without ASD. For both groups, the level of executive functioning was related to the degree of homework difficulty experienced.     

The use of Social Story DVDs to reduce anxiety levels: a case study of a child with autism and learning disabilities

The study outlined here was an attempt to examine the use of Social Story DVDs as a single‐intervention approach in addressing the issue of anxiety around turn taking in a child with dual diagnosis of autism and learning disability. The child selected was in a school for children with additional needs. The child was taught in a daily session focusing on the Social Story DVD materials around ‘turn taking’ and accompanying ‘turn‐taking’ activities. Immediate peers were also included in the ‘turn‐taking’ sessions and the child would incorporate these skills with his peers in the classroom setting. The results showed that only through combining strategies and combining interventions can the diverse range of individual needs of those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and learning disability be met. Using a sole intervention to address specific social deficits misses the complexity of ASD and each individual's uniqueness.     

Improving classroom dynamics to support students' learning and social inclusion: a collaborative approach

In this article, Mary Doveston and Marian Keenaghan discuss their work with teachers and students in developing more effective and satisfying interpersonal relationships in the classroom. Their approach focuses on increasing the capacity of a classroom community to address and measure its progress in the social and emotional competencies which that community has identified as being important. The principles of Appreciative Inquiry and Solution Focused Thinking underpin their approach to working with students and teachers, with the researchers supporting teachers to facilitate student participation in a process which they have described as ‘Growing Talent for Inclusion’ (GTi).     

RESEARCH SECTION: The self‐esteem of pupils in schools for pupils with social,emotional and behavioural difficulties: myth and reality

The self‐esteem of pupils has long been regarded as a key variable affecting both pupils' learning and behaviour, although the relationship between the two may not be as strong as many in education have always assumed. In this article, Jeremy Swinson, an educational psychologist and honorary lecturer in educational psychology at Liverpool John Moores University, reports the findings from a study in two parts. Firstly, an examination was made of 35 Statements written by officers from seven different education authorities in the north‐west of England for pupils attending two independent schools that specialise in working with pupils with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). It was found that, of the 35 Statements examined, 34 included self‐esteem as one area of special need. The second phase of the study examined the self‐esteem of 60 pupils in four specialist schools for pupils with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. The results showed that the average scores for self‐esteem for both the primary and secondary sample were very similar to the scores obtained by previous researchers in mainstream schools. However, it was apparent that more pupils than expected appeared to have either very low or very high self‐esteem. In terms of locus of control, it was found that a large number of secondary pupils had a high score although this was not found to be the case for the primary pupils in the sample. Jeremy Swinson discusses these results and presents his analysis of their implications for teachers, educational psychologists and education officers.     

Speech and language therapy support for pupils with behavioural, emotional and social difficulties (BESD) – a pilot project

Current research highlights the prevalence of potentially undetected communication difficulties, often associated with major difficulties in literacy and learning, among pupils identified as having behavioural, emotional and social difficulties (BESD). In this article, Sarah Heneker, who is a speech and language therapist working mainly with adults with learning disabilities in a Primary Care Trust in Surrey, reports on a pilot project that provided speech and language therapy to a group of pupils in a pupil referral unit (PRU). The research involved formal assessment of 11 pupils aged between five and 11 years. These assessments confirmed that ten out of the 11 pupils experienced some degree of difficulty in communication. Six of these pupils, whose significant difficulties warranted the intervention, were offered speech and language therapy for one term. All these pupils made progress in the areas targeted for intervention and gained confidence generally in their communication. The pupils who worked on word knowledge made the greatest measurable progress. Sarah Heneker reports on these and other benefits to the pupils involved and reveals that the success of her pilot project has led directly to a sustained programme of speech and language therapy input for the pupils in this PRU. This may be a response that education providers in other localities will wish to emulate.