African-American and Euro-American Preschoolers with Intellectual Disabilities: Patterns of Play with Toys

The patterns of cognitive play of 28 African-American and Euro-American preschool children with intellectual disabilities are reported. Fourteen children representing each group, matched on developmental age and family variables, were observed playing independently at home. Categorical and sequential play behaviors were coded from videotapes using a 15-second partial interval coding procedure. The pattern of African-American children's play was more reflective of their developmental age than the pattern of Euro-American children's play for their developmental age. Between group effects emerged for only 1 of 15 dependent variables included in the analyses: length of single scheme sequence. The results highlight children's strengths and challenge commonly held stereotypes. Recommendations for future research are provided.     

Follow-Up Section: Early Childhood Emotional Competence: Young Children's Emotionally-Charged Moral Narratives: Relations with Attachment and Behavior Problems

Participants were 45 mostly African-American or Latino young children (25 boys, 20 girls, mean age = 56.4 months), with about half recruited from a mental health facility and half from preschool settings. Children were administered two separate interviews examining their affectively-charged moral narratives regarding acts of victimization (Moral MSSB) and their attachment-related narratives (SAT). In addition, children's teachers or therapists completed assessments of the attachment-like aspects of their relationships with children (STRS), and a measure of children's behavior problems and competencies (C-TRF). Overall, after controlling for child age, gender, SES, and expressive language ability, children with more externalizing problems were more likely to describe aggressive themes, and less likely to mention adult aid or taking responsibility for transgressions in their moral narratives. In addition, more positive attachments (both the SAT and STRS) were associated with fewer externalizing problems. More than half of the total variance in children's externalizing scores could be predicted from a combination of the attachment and Moral MSSB variables. These findings have implications for understanding the affective origins of young children's externalizing behavior problems involving both peers and adults.     

Contextually Influenced Patterns of Play-Developmental Age Associations for Preschoolers With and Without Mental Retardation

The purpose of this paper is to present data demonstrating the differential pattern of association among play behaviors and developmental age that emerge for children with and without mental retardation across play situations. Seventeen preschool children with mental retardation and 17 preschool children without mental retardation were matched on developmental age and sex and observed during both home-based independent play and classroom-based freeplay. Results are presented for (a) between-group comparisons of home-based and classroom-based categorical–developmental age and sequential play–developmental age correlational patterns, (b) between setting comparisons of home-based and classroom-based categorical–developmental age and sequential play–developmental age correlational patterns within each group, and (c) comparisons of the pattern of categorical play–developmental age and sequential play–developmental age correlations within both setting and group. Results suggest both group and setting variation in the play–developmental age correlational patterns. Implications for multi-contextual understanding of children’s play and the use of play in early childhood assessment are discussed.     

Mothers' Perspectives of the Peer-Related Social Development of Young Children with Developmental Delays and Communication Disorders

Mothers' perspectives of children's peer-related social development were obtained from matched groups of young children with developmental delays, communicative disorders, and typically developing children. Structured interviews elicited information on numerous issues including mothers' views of the importance of children's social skills development, rationales with respect to why children succeed or had difficulties on specific social tasks, and the socialization strategies mothers employ to promote children's peer-related social development. Mothers also reported on their efforts to arrange play with peers for their child and the degree to which they monitored that play. Results indicated that mothers rated children's social development as highly important, offered primarily internal rationales (e.g., traits, dispositions) for success or difficulties in achieving social tasks, and endorsed moderate and low power socialization strategies. Differences across the three groups were minimal. Mothers arranged play with peers least often for children with developmental delays and communication disorders, but monitored play more extensively for children with delays. These finding were discussed in terms of mothers adopting a developmental orientation to understand children's social development and their implications for maternal participation in peer competence intervention programs.     

Maternal variables related to sexually abused children's functioning.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to explore how mothers' developmental history and current functioning affects their sexually abused children's functioning and recovery. METHOD: A sample of 67 African-American mothers and their sexually abused children participated in this study. Interviews and a range of adult and child measures were administered in order to assess maternal developmental history and current functioning, and child functioning. RESULTS: Mothers' past experiences as children were associated with their children's behavior and general functioning following the sexual abuse. Mothers who experienced more discontinuity of childhood care, who were sexually abused as children, and/or had more problems in their family of origin had children who showed poorer functioning and more behavioral symptomatology. In addition, mothers who currently were experiencing more trauma symptomatology, reported substance abuse, and/or were less able to provide support to their children, had children with more behavior problems and poorer functioning. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study point to the impact of mothers' developmental history and current functioning upon the symptomatology of their sexually abused children.     

Linkages between delayed children's social interactions with mothers and peers

The social dimensions of family-peer linkages of 4- to 6-year-old children (N=63) with developmental delays (IQ range, 50-80) were examined in this study. Hierarchical regressions revealed consistent and meaningful patterns of association relating children's influence attempts directed toward their mothers and their interactions with peers. A similar association with peer interactions was found for children's ability to obtain compliance from their mothers. Evidence suggested the existence of a core behavioral pattern that children exhibit with different partners and in different contexts. The role of horizontal forms of parent-child interactions in promoting the peer relationships of children with delays was suggested, particularly in terms of an intervention approach for this group of children.     

Mixed-Age Interactions in Family Child Care

Preschool-age children's experiences within the mixed-age setting of family child care homes and the influences of these experiences on development were examined. Development variables included social and cognitive play, and receptive and expressive language. Consistent with Vygotsky's developmental theory, children's interactions with mixed-age peers were more powerful predictors of development than the mere availability of mixed-age peers. Interactions with older peers were associated with more complex cognitive play behaviors. Interactions with younger and same-age peers were associated with less complex social and cognitive play and lower receptive language scores. Characteristics of the child care setting appeared to moderate children's behavior in the mixed-age environment. Children in higher quality family child care homes with responsive caregivers were less likely to interact with younger children. No evidence was found of different developmental outcomes across developmental domains for older versus younger children.     

Predictors of Behavior Problems in Three-Year-Old Sons of Alcoholics: Early Evidence for the Onset of Risk

We investigated risk factors in a population-based sample of alcoholic (father) and comparison families with 3-year-old sons. Alcoholic and comparison parents did not differ in socioeconomic status (SES), education, years married, family size, or cognitive functioning. Anti-social behavior and depression were significantly greater in alcoholic parents. High risk children were more impulsive than comparison children, but there were no differences in developmental age, IQ, or behavior problems. A higher percentage of high-risk children were rated in the extreme clinical range for behavior problems than were comparison children. For alcoholic families, mothers' ratings of their children's total behavior problems, externalizing behavior problems, and internalizing behavior problems were predicted by mothers' lifetime alcohol problems, current depression, and family SES. Father variables failed to predict children's behavior problems. Maternal variables were stronger predictors of their 3-year-old sons' problem behaviors than were paternal variables.     

Fostering Parental Support for Children's Mathematical Development: An Intervention with Head Start Families

The first national education goal, school readiness, recognizes a need for young children to be better prepared for entry into elementary school. Many low-income children exhibit a pattern of underachievement in school mathematics. Research has revealed a developmental gap between low-income preschool children and their middle-class peers with respect to the extent of their numerical knowledge. Research has also found that many low-income children do not receive a broad base of support for mathematical development at home or in preschool. In each of two studies, we conducted a bi-generation (parent and child) mathematics intervention with Head Start families. The intervention was designed to enhance parental support for pre-kindergarten children's mathematical development. It was found that low-income parents were willing and able to support this area of their children's development once they were provided with the training to do so. The support that parents provided to their children through the intervention was clearly effective in enhancing the development of children's informal mathematical knowledge. Intervention children developed more extensive mathematical knowledge than a comparison group of low-income children. Thus, an important step toward achieving the school readiness goal can be taken by fostering low- income parents' support for young children's mathematical development.     

Conflict in the Dyadic Play of 3-Year-Old Children

Episodes of conflict provide a rich source of information about children's development of interactive skills. In the present study, 184 3-year-old children were observed in dyadic play and the 287 conflicts that occurred during their play were transcribed and coded. In general, children's conflicts arose in the context of ongoing play and were brief, lasting less than 15 seconds. Most disputes concerned toy possession, and almost 80% were ended by the simple withdrawal of one or the other children from the conflict. When children responded with emotional intensity to conflict, their conflicts lasted longer and were more likely to be followed by continued negative interaction. Individual difference data were available for one member of each dyad observed in play. Children rated in infancy as having difficult temperaments were found to be more intense during conflict, to spend more time in conflict, and to score higher on an index of conflict resolution competence, whereas concurrent social behavior was not related to conflict variables. Girls scored higher than boys on competence at conflict resolution, and children with better language skills spent less time in conflict. The more time children spent in nonmaternal child care up to age 3, the less likely they were to initiate conflict.     

Development of mutual responsiveness between parents and their young children

This comprehensive study of mutual responsiveness examined 102 mothers and 102 fathers interacting with their children at 7 and 15 months. Responsiveness was studied from developmental and individual differences perspectives, and assessed using macroscopic ratings and microscopic event coding. The latter captured parents' reactions to children's negative, positive, and physical bids, and children's reactions to parents' social-interactive bids, mood regulation attempts, and influence attempts. Responsiveness depended on bid type and child age, and reflected developmental changes in children, parents, and relationships. Mothers were more responsive than fathers; children were equally responsive to both parents and coherent in their responsiveness. Ratings revealed dyadic mutuality and longitudinal continuity of responsiveness. Parent-child responsiveness from 7 to 15 months was consistent with assumptions of a parent-driven process.     

Stability, change, and correlates of the peer relationships of young children with mild developmental delays

The peer relationships of young children with mild developmental (cognitive) delays recruited at 4-6 years of age were examined in a longitudinal study across a 2-year period. Results revealed only modest increases in children's peer interactions, a high degree of intraindividual stability, and the existence of a poorly organized and conflict-prone pattern of peer interactions. Child cognitive and language levels as well as family stress and support were associated with children's peer interactions. A subgroup was identified of initially low interactors who were at especially high risk for future peer interaction problems. These findings further underscore the importance of designing and implementing early intervention programs in the area of peer relationships for children with mild developmental delays.     

Parenting and family socialization strategies and children's mental health: low-income Mexican-American and Euro-American mothers and children

The extent to which current theories on family-related factors associated with children's depression and conduct problems are applicable to Mexican American children was examined among demographically comparable samples of low-income Mexican American (English and Spanish speaking) and Euro-American mothers and children. There were ethnic differences in mean levels of children's depression, maternal inconsistent discipline, and hostile control. In addition, there were differences across language within the Mexican American sample on levels of reported maternal inconsistent discipline and hostile control. The vast majority of relations between parenting and mental health were similar between Mexican Americans and Euro-Americans, suggesting that current theories do apply across ethnic groups. However, analyses across language within the Mexican American sample showed that language preference moderated the relation between maternal acceptance and children's conduct problems. Moreover, the relation between acceptance and hostile control differed across groups. These results are discussed in light of the relative influence of ethnicity and other contextual variables on parenting and children's mental health.     

视力残疾学生与普通学生平衡能力比较研究

探讨视力残疾学生平衡能力发展的基本规律.方法测定视力残疾学生与普通学生单腿站立时间,并对二者进行比较研究.结果视力残疾儿童的平衡能力比普通儿童的平衡能力低;视力残疾儿童和普通儿童的平衡能力随着年龄的增长而提高;视力残疾儿童和普通儿童平衡能力发展呈阶段性;后天的经验促进儿童的平衡能力的发展.     

A Cognitive-Developmental Approach to Racial Stereotyping and Reconstructive Memory in Euro-American Children

To examine the role of cognitive skill and racial stereotyping in Euro-American children's processing of race-related information, 75 Euro-American children, aged 4–9 years, were asked to recall stories that were either consistent with or inconsistent with cultural racial stereotypes. In 6 trait stories, a Euro-American main character encounters both a Euro-American and an African American child. A negative trait is attributed to either the African American (stereotypic story) or the Euro-American child (counterstereotypic story). In 6 social relationship stories, main characters interact with neighbors, friends, or married couples, portrayed either intraracially (stereotypic) or interracially (counterstereotypic). Individual difference measures were used to assess subjects' racial stereotyping and their classification skill (ability to sort stimuli along multiple dimensions). As predicted, lower degrees of racial stereotyping and the ability to classify persons along multiple dimensions were associated with better memory for counterstereotypic stories. Implications for intervention programs aimed at reducing racial stereotyping are discussed.     

Relations among child care quality, teacher behavior, children's play activities, emotional security, and cognitive activity in child care

Eight hundred forty children (435 girls) enrolled in full-time, center-based child care participated in the study. Children ranged in age from 10 to 70 months. Sixty-six percent of the children were European American, the remainder African American. Children's play activities and cognitive activities as well as their relationships with caregivers were observed within the child care setting. The study tested the prediction that variation in children's cognitive activities could be directly and indirectly explained by child care quality, positive social interaction with teachers, and children's play activities and attachment security with their child care teachers. The prediction was examined and at least partially supported in eight subsamples of infant-toddler and preschool age European American and African American children in subsidized and nonsubsidized child care. Specifically, in seven of the eight subsamples, 15 to 30% of the variability in children's cognitive activities could be predicted from positive social interaction with teachers, attachment security, and participation in creative play activities.     

Development and validation of the Preschool Temperament Classification System for use with teachers

The purpose of the current study is to describe the development and validation of a new measure of temperament, the Preschool Temperament Classification System (PTCS). The PTCS was developed as a typological measure that identifies children's temperament styles as undercontrolled, resilient, or overcontrolled. The PTCS is a time efficient structured interview assessing children's temperament as it is observed in the classroom environment. During the 20 min interview, teachers classify all of the children in their class into one of the three temperament styles, rank order children within each temperament group, and assign an intensity rating to each child, indicating how well the child matches his/her assigned temperament group. Data were collected on 196 preschool-age children from 25 Head Start classrooms in an urban area. Teachers assessed children's temperament and peer play behaviors, and trained research assistants assessed children's school readiness. The PTCS classified children into temperament groups that showed expected relations to peer play competence and school readiness after controlling for age and gender, indicating good validity. Test–retest reliability was moderate to high. Overall the PTCS shows promise as a valid and reliable teacher measure of preschool children's temperament.     

Indonesian Children's Play with Their Mothers and Older Siblings

30 Indonesian children were observed and videotaped on 2 separate occasions while playing with toys to promote imaginative play with their mothers and older siblings. Play episodes were examined for level of play with objects, mutual involvement in social and cooperative social pretend play, maternal and sibling play behaviors, and thematic content. Mothers were interviewed about children's play. Results showed that level of object play and mutual involvement in cooperative social pretend play increased with age. Pretend play with objects and cooperative social pretend play were more frequent with older siblings than with mothers. Older siblings were more actively involved in play activities than were mothers. Siblings joined their younger partners' play activities and made comments and suggestions for pretend play. The findings suggest that older siblings can be effective facilitators of pretend play with young children. The results also show how the sociocultural context shapes children's early play behavior with different partners.     

Preschoolers' Classroom Activities and Interactions with Peers and Teachers

The present study was designed to investigate whether or not preschool children's classroom activities and interactions vary according to the power structure of their relationships. We examined the frequencies of children's play and problem-solving activities, and management, collaboration, and assistance interactions in these activities as a function of children's relationships with their teachers and peers. We had two expectations: 1) Preschool children would engage in problem-solving activities with their teachers, who are inherently more powerful; but they would engage in play activities with their peers with whom they share power. 2) Teacher-child interactions would involve primarily management and assistance but child-peer interactions would involve collaborations. We observed 55 children during their free-activity, noting partners, and narrating the actions and utterances of all the participants in writing during the observations. Our analyses were based on the coding of narratives, and they revealed that the power structure of children's relationships plays a role in their activities and interactions. We found that children's problem-solving occurred with both teachers and peers. Play activities occurred overwhelmingly with peers. Management and assistance took place mostly in teacher-child interaction, but collaboration occurred primarily with peers. These findings support the developmental theory that adults and peers contribute to children's development and education through different kinds of activities and interactions.