"Digit anatomy": a new technique for learning anatomy using motor memory

Gestural motions of the hands and fingers are powerful tools for expressing meanings and concepts, and the nervous system has the capacity to retain multiple long-term motor memories, especially including movements of the hands. We developed many sets of successive movements of both hands, referred to as "digit anatomy," and made students practice the movements which express (1) the aortic arch, subclavian, and thoracoacromial arteries and their branches, (2) the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery and their branches, and formation of the portal vein, (3) the heart and the coronary arteries, and (4) the brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses. A feedback survey showed that digit anatomy was helpful for the students not only in memorizing anatomical structures but also in understanding their functions. Out of 40 students, 34 of them who learned anatomy with the help of digit anatomy were "very satisfied" or "generally satisfied" with this new teaching method. Digit anatomy that was used to express the aortic arch, subclavian, and thoracoacromial arteries and their branches was more helpful than those representing other structures. Although the movements of digit anatomy are expected to be remembered longer than the exact meaning of each movement, invoking the motor memory of the movement may help to make relearning of the same information easier and faster in the future.     

Building the body: Active learning laboratories that emphasize practical aspects of anatomy and integration with radiology

Active learning exercises were developed to allow advanced medical students to revisit and review anatomy in a clinically meaningful context. In our curriculum, students learn anatomy two to three years before they participate in the radiology clerkship. These educational exercises are designed to review anatomy content while highlighting its relevance to the study of radiology. Laboratory exercises were developed using inexpensive materials in the form of hands‐on stations designed for use by students working together in small groups. Station exercises include model building, exploring relevant radiological imaging, and practicing clinical techniques. Students are encouraged to move from abstract conceptualization of the anatomy using models to applying knowledge to living tissues by using a portable ultrasound to explore superficial anatomy on each other. Stations are designed to integrate knowledge and reemphasize concepts in different contexts, so that upon completion students have a reinforced understanding of the three‐dimensional anatomy of the region in question, the appearance of the anatomy on radiological images, and an appreciation of the relevance of the anatomy to radiological procedures. Anat Sci Educ, 2010 © 2010 American Association of Anatomists.     

Influence of study approaches and course design on academic success in the undergraduate anatomy laboratory

Many pre‐health professional programs require completion of an undergraduate anatomy course with a laboratory component, yet grades in these courses are often low. Many students perceive anatomy as a more challenging subject than other coursework, and the resulting anxiety surrounding this perception may be a significant contributor to poor performance. Well‐planned and deliberate guidance from instructors, as well as thoughtful course design, may be necessary to assist students in finding the best approach to studying for anatomy. This article assesses which study habits are associated with course success and whether course design influences study habits. Surveys (n = 1,274) were administered to students enrolled in three undergraduate human anatomy laboratory courses with varying levels of cooperative learning and structured guidance. The surveys collected information on potential predictors of performance, including student demographics, educational background, self‐assessment ability, and study methods (e.g., flashcards, textbooks, diagrams). Compared to low performers, high performers perceive studying in laboratory, asking the instructor questions, quizzing alone, and quizzing others as more effective for learning. Additionally, students co‐enrolled in a flipped, active lecture anatomy course achieve higher grades and find active learning activities (e.g., quizzing alone and in groups) more helpful for their learning in the laboratory. These results strengthen previous research suggesting that student performance is more greatly enhanced by an active classroom environment that practices successful study strategies rather than one that simply encourages students to employ such strategies inside and outside the classroom. Anat Sci Educ 11: 496–509. © 2018 American Association of Anatomists.     

Evaluation of computer‐aided instruction in a gross anatomy course: A six‐year study

Web‐based computer‐aided instruction (CAI) has become increasingly important to medical curricula. This multi‐year study investigated the effectiveness of CAI and the factors affecting level of individual use. Three CAI were tested that differed in specificity of applicability to the curriculum and in the level of student interaction with the CAI. Student personality preferences and learning styles were measured using the Meyers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI). Information on “computer literacy” and use of CAI was collected from student surveys. Server logs were used to quantify individual use of respective CAI. There was considerable variability in the level of utilization of each CAI by individual students. Individual use of each CAI differed and was associated with gender, MBTI preferences and learning style, but not with “computer literacy.” The majority of students found the CAI useful for learning and used the CAI by themselves. Students who accessed the CAI resources most frequently scored significantly higher on exams compared with students who never accessed the resources. Our results show that medical students do not uniformly use CAI developed for their curriculum and this variability is associated with various attributes of individual students. Our data also provide evidence of the importance of understanding student preferences and learning styles when implementing CAI into the curriculum. Anat Sci Ed 2:2–8, 2009. © 2009 American Association of Anatomists.     

Anatomy as the backbone of an integrated first year medical curriculum: design and implementation

Morehouse School of Medicine chose to restructure its first year medical curriculum in 2005. The anatomy faculty had prior experience in integrating courses, stemming from the successful integration of individual anatomical sciences courses into a single course called Human Morphology. The integration process was expanded to include the other first year basic science courses (Biochemistry, Physiology, and Neurobiology) as we progressed toward an integrated curriculum. A team, consisting of the course directors, a curriculum coordinator, and the Associate Dean for Educational and Faculty Affairs, was assembled to build the new curriculum. For the initial phase, the original course titles were retained but the lecture order was reorganized around the Human Morphology topic sequence. The material from all four courses was organized into four sequential units. Other curricular changes included placing laboratories and lectures more consistently in the daily routine, reducing lecture time from 120 to 90 minute blocks, eliminating unnecessary duplication of content, and increasing the amount of independent study time. Examinations were constructed to include questions from all courses on a single test, reducing the number of examination days in each block from three to one. The entire restructuring process took two years to complete, and the revised curriculum was implemented for the students entering in 2007. The outcomes of the restructured curriculum include a reduction in the number of contact hours by 28%, higher or equivalent subject examination average scores, enhanced student satisfaction, and a first year curriculum team better prepared to move forward with future integration.     

The use of limericks to engage student interest and promote active learning in an undergraduate course in functional anatomy

The study of anatomy is a content-dense discipline with a challenging vocabulary. A mnemonic is a series of letters, a word, a phrase, or a rhyme that students can use when studying to facilitate recall. This project was designed to promote active learning in undergraduate students studying anatomy and physiology by asking them to create limericks based on course content and then to evaluate the limericks written by their peers for learning value, accuracy, style, and adherence to limerick characteristics. Students (278 and 288, respectively, in the 2009 and 2010 sections of ANP1107) worked in groups of three to create a total of 242 limericks. Peer evaluation was accomplished in two stages using a 20-point marking rubric. In Stage 1, students were randomly divided into 10 groups (n = 23 ± 2 students) with each group member evaluating the same 12 ± 1 limericks. In Stage 2, the top 19% of limericks were reevaluated by all students so that the best three could be chosen. In each of the two years, 60% of students completed all parts of the assignment. Higher percentages (75-80%) participated in limerick writing and one of the two assessment stages. A positive association was noted between level of student participation in the limerick assignment and final course marks. Limerick creation and evaluation can be used to promote active learning by encouraging students to review functional-anatomy-based content to create limericks with good learning value and to provide valid assessments of limericks written by their peers.     

Medical students' perceptions of the body donor as a first patient or teacher: a pilot study

University of Michigan Medical School (UMMS) students attending a seminar on the history and ethics of anatomical dissection were fascinated by a report on the dissection room experience in Thailand that relates the body donor's status as a teacher. The students felt that they had naturally adopted the body as teacher approach in their dissection course, rather than the body as first patient approach that is encouraged by faculty. It was decided to explore the question whether other medical students shared these perceptions. A questionnaire was sent out to all UMMS students who had finished the anatomical dissection course. One hundred twenty-eight responses from a population of 500 students were received. Results indicate that students believe the body as teacher approach is more effective in engendering respect and empathy towards the body and towards future patients, and in facilitating students' emotional development. Students also reported wanting a more personal relationship with their donors. Eighty four percent of students preferred the body as teacher approach to the currently taught body as first patient approach. The results support the hypothesis that students' desired closer personal relationship with donors might be better facilitated by the body as teacher approach, and that this closer relationship engenders empathy and respect towards the donor and future patients. A new model for anatomy programs could introduce the donor first as a teacher and later transition into viewing the donor as a patient.     

Designing Blended Inquiry Learning in a Laboratory Context: A Study of Incorporating Hands-On and Virtual Laboratories

This article reports on the development of a methodology that integrates virtual and hands-on inquiry in a freshman introductory biology course. Using a two time × two order-condition design, an effective combination (blend) of the two environments was evaluated with 39 freshman biology participants. The quantitative results documented no significant effect of presentation order but demonstrated a significant effect of the combined learning experience. The qualitative results showed a strong preference by students for the virtual work preceding the hands-on laboratory. The study provides practitioners an effective alternative to traditional instructional practices by combining virtual and hands-on inquiry learning.

Anatomy education in a changing medical curriculum in India: Medical student feedback on duration and emphasis of gross anatomy teaching

Authors report here a survey of medical student feedback on the effectiveness of two different anatomy curricula at Christian Medical College, Vellore, India. Undergraduate medical students seeking the Bachelor in Medicine and Bachelor in Surgery (M.B.B.S.) degrees were divided into two groups by the duration of their respective anatomy curriculum. Group 1 students had completed a longer, 18‐month curriculum whereas Group 2 counterparts followed a shorter, 12‐month curriculum. Students' responses to a questionnaire were studied. Analysis of feedback from Groups 1 and 2 contrasted the effectiveness of the two anatomy curricula. The coverage of gross anatomy was rated adequate or more than adequate by 98% of Group 1 and 91% of Group 2. A desire for greater emphasis on gross anatomy teaching was expressed by 24% of Group 1 and 50% of Group 2 (P = 0.000). Two‐thirds of all students felt that the one‐year program was not adequate, and 90% of Group 1 and 74% of Group 2 felt that clinically oriented anatomy teaching required more emphasis. Dissection was helpful or very helpful for 94% of Group 1 and 88% of Group 2. This study suggests that a better understanding of gross anatomy was gained from a course of longer duration (18 months with 915 contact hr vs. 12 months with 671 contact hr). Students who completed the longer anatomy course had greater appreciation of the need for clinically oriented anatomy teaching and dissection. Anat Sci Educ 2:179–183, 2009. © 2009 American Association of Anatomists.     

The translucent cadaver: An evaluation of the use of full body digital x-ray images and drawings in surface anatomy education

It has been noted by staff at the Faculty of Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University that medical students neglect the study of surface anatomy during dissection. This study reports on the novel use of Lodox® Statscan® images in anatomical education, particularly the teaching of surface anatomy. Full body digital X‐ray images (Lodox Statscan) of each cadaver (n = 40) were provided to second year medical students. During dissection students were asked to visualize landmarks, organs, and structures on the digital X‐ray and their cadaver, as well as palpate these landmarks and structures on themselves, their colleagues, and the cadaver. To stimulate student engagement with surface anatomy, dissection groups were required to draw both the normal and actual position of organs on a laminated image provided. The accuracy of the drawings was subsequently assessed and students were further assessed by means of practical identification tests. In addition, students were asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire. A response rate of 79% was obtained for the student questionnaire. From the questionnaire it was gathered that students found the digital X‐ray images beneficial for viewing most systems' organs, except for the pelvic organs. Although it appears that students still struggle with the study of surface anatomy, most students believed that the digital X‐rays were beneficial to their studies and supported their continued use in the future. Anat Sci Educ. © 2012 American Association of Anatomists.     

An exploration of anatomists’ views toward the use of body painting in anatomical and medical education: An international study

Previous research has explored the experiences of medical students using body painting as a learning tool. However, to date, faculty experiences and views have not been explored. This international qualitative study utilized a grounded theory approach with data collection through interviews with academics and clinicians who utilized body painting as part of their anatomical teaching. Twenty‐six anatomists participated in the study from 14 centers worldwide. Three themes emerged from the data: (1) the efficacy of body painting, (2) the promotion of knowledge retention and recall, (3) considerations and practicalities regarding the use of body painting as a teaching tool. Subthemes show that body painting is used as an adjunct to the curriculum for teaching surface anatomy and peer examination. Benefits included diffusing the formal curricula, high student engagement and learning for future clinical practice. Body painting was advocated for promoting knowledge retention and recall, particularly learning through the process of cognitive load due to combining the use of color and kinesthetic learning with anatomical theory. Critical discussions surfaced on the topic of undressing in the classroom due to cultural and personal considerations possibly leading to unequal involvement and different learning experiences. Overall results support previous research showing that anatomists appreciate body painting as an effective, enjoyable, engaging and cost efficient adjunct to the multimodal anatomy curriculum. The role of cognitive load theory in learning anatomy through body painting emerged from the data as a possible theoretical framework supporting learning benefits from body painting and is suggested for further investigation. Anat Sci Educ 11: 146–154. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.     

Demystifying the Millennial student: a reassessment in measures of character and engagement in professional education

The characteristic profile of Millennial Generation students, driving many educational reforms, can be challenged by research in a number of fields including cognition, learning style, neurology, and psychology. This evidence suggests that the current aggregate view of the Millennial student may be less than accurate. Statistics show that Millennial students are considerably diverse in backgrounds, personalities, and learning styles. Data are presented regarding technological predilection, multitasking, reading, critical thinking, professional behaviors, and learning styles, which indicate that students in the Millennial Generation may not be as homogenous in fundamental learning strategies and attitudes as is regularly proposed. Although their common character traits have implications for instruction, no available evidence demonstrates that these traits impact their fundamental process of learning. Many curricular strategies have been implemented to address alleged changes in the manner by which Millennial students learn. None has clearly shown superior outcomes in academic accomplishments or developing expertise for graduating students and concerns persist related to the successful engagement of Millennial students in the process of learning. Four factors for consideration in general curricular design are proposed to address student engagement and optimal knowledge acquisition for 21st century learners.     

The impact of color and role on retention of knowledge: a body-painting study within undergraduate medicine

Body painting as a tool for teaching anatomy is becoming increasingly popular as it is fun and diffuses the formal academic context. Students claim bright color plays a significant role in retention of knowledge from painting sessions. Medical students (n = 117) were divided into two conditions: block color (CLR) and black outlines (BLK). Students completed a pre-test before a body painting teaching session on abdominal referred pain. CLR students used bright block colors, and BLK students mapped outlines in black. Immediately afterward, students sat a mid-test to compare the conditions. Students completed a post-test to compare long-term retention of knowledge four weeks later. There was no difference in knowledge between the two conditions immediately after the teaching (P = 0.653). There was no significant difference in long-term retention of knowledge between those using black outlines and those using color (P = 0.278). The use of color had no impact on short-term or long-term retention of knowledge, despite previously collected qualitative data that color helped memorization. Despite there being no immediate difference in the amount of information retained, the students' enthusiasm for body painting and the use of bold colors warrant body painting's inclusion within the anatomy curriculum. Acceptability plays a significant role in the success of any teaching modality. Additionally, students who undertook the roles of painter or canvas retained similar amounts of information after six weeks (P = 0.505). Students' classification as verbalizer or visualizer did not impact on their test performance.     

Evaluation of usage of virtual microscopy for the study of histology in the medical,dental, and veterinary undergraduate programs of a UK University

This article describes the introduction of a virtual microscope (VM) that has allowed preclinical histology teaching to be fashioned to better suit the needs of approximately 900 undergraduate students per year studying medicine, dentistry, or veterinary science at the University of Bristol, United Kingdom. Features of the VM implementation include: (1) the facility for students and teachers to make annotations on the digital slides; (2) in‐house development of VM‐based quizzes that are used for both formative and summative assessments; (3) archiving of teaching materials generated each year, enabling students to access their personalized learning resources throughout their programs; and (4) retention of light microscopy capability alongside the VM. Student feedback on the VM is particularly positive about its ease of use, the value of the annotation tool, the quizzes, and the accessibility of all components off‐campus. Analysis of login data indicates considerable, although variable, use of the VM by students outside timetabled teaching. The median number of annual logins per student account for every course exceeded the number of timetabled histology classes for that course (1.6–3.5 times). The total number of annual student logins across all cohorts increased from approximately 9,000 in the year 2007–2008 to 22,000 in the year 2010–2011. The implementation of the VM has improved teaching and learning in practical classes within the histology laboratory and facilitated consolidation and revision of material outside the laboratory. Discussion is provided of some novel strategies that capitalize on the benefits of introducing a VM, as well as strategies adopted to overcome some potential challenges. Anat Sci Educ 7: 389–398. © 2013 American Association of Anatomists.     

Transforming practice in Design and Technology: evidence from a classroom-based research study of students' responses to an intervention on inclusive design

This article offers evidence from a classroom-based research study in English secondary schools which developed an innovative approach to teaching in Design and Technology based on inclusive design (also known as universal design). The research evidence highlights how creative, problem-solving approaches in Design and Technology can be used to provide authentic, engaging learning experiences for students. This study, entitled ‘Designing our Tomorrows', introduced secondary school teachers and students to the principles and practices of inclusive design through an intervention using specially designed resources. In this article, findings from the study's qualitative pre- and post-intervention interviews are presented to illustrate how this type of approach can stimulate students' creativity and understanding of design.     

Insightful learning in the laboratory: Some experiences from 10 years of designing and using conceptual labs

This paper describes a series of projects on the design and implementation of ‘conceptual labs’ aimed at developing insightful learning, following work that began in 1994/1995. The main focus has been on courses in mechanics and electric circuit theory. The approach taken in designing these innovative curricula can be described as ‘design-based research’. A common feature in these learning environments is the use of technology as a tool to aid students’ inquiry. In addition, systematic variation, based on the theory of variation, has been introduced into the design of the assigned tasks. Results from conceptual inventories have demonstrated the success of conceptual labs. In the later projects, video recording was used to study students’ courses of action in labs. This paper describes how these studies have provided insights into conditions that are critical for learning and how these insights have helped the present author and his co-workers make further improvements to learning environments.     

Reception learning and self-discovery learning in histology: Students' perceptions and their implications for assessing the effectiveness of different learning modalities

Two questionnaires were used to investigate students' perceptions of their motivation to opt for reception learning (RL) or self‐discovery learning (SDL) in histology and their choices of complementary learning strategies (CLS). The results demonstrated that the motivation to attend RL sessions was higher than the motivation to attend SDL to gain new knowledge (P < 0.01) and to apply this acquired knowledge to diagnosis (P < 0.01), therapy (P < 0.01), and research (P < 0.05). Students also showed a stronger preference for RL based on motivations related to leadership (P < 0.01) and competition (P < 0.01), although the rates were very low in both cases (≤ 1.9 ± 1.1). Statistically significant differences were found between male and female students for leadership (higher in males), responsibility (higher in females), and acquiring new knowledge (higher in females only in RL). This study's findings for students' preferred CLS strategies suggested a greater need for additional complementary resources after RL than after SDL (P < 0.01). In conclusion, RL was associated with a greater need for complementary training resources such as textbooks, atlases, the internet, audiovisual media, and tutorials, whereas SDL was associated with a greater need to orient teaching and training toward medical practice. These results suggest the need to reorient both types of learning processes to enhance their effectiveness in teaching histology, especially in the case of SDL, which should place more emphasis on clinically oriented knowledge. Anat Sci Educ. © 2012 American Association of Anatomists.     

Negotiating epistemological challenges in thinking and practice: A case study of a literacy and inquiry tool as a mediator of professional conversation

This study examines how a Humanities team engaged in professional conversation to refine and implement a literacy and inquiry tool in an Asian Studies curriculum. Drawing on socio-cultural perspectives of teacher learning and theories of tools as mediators of action, this case study investigates the ways this community of practice discussed their understandings of contexts, curriculum, and classroom practice to implement the literacy and inquiry tool. Such practices hold promise for the design of professional learning experiences where teachers engage in conversations about key tools they can use in their practice and assume more control of their own professional learning.