Basic School Effectiveness Research: Items for a Research Agenda 1

Reviewers of the school effectiveness literature rarely forget to mention the importance of the formation of theory. Yet, the actual practice of school effectiveness research is rather atheoretical. In this article two types of studies are discussed that may strengthen the conceptual and theoretical basis of school effectiveness research: foundational studies, aimed at resolving basic conceptual questions regarding the construct of school effectiveness and fundamental studies aimed at the development and testing of school effectiveness models using available theories from the social sciences.

A list of concrete items for the school effectiveness research agenda is the result of this exploration of conceptual and theoretical issues.

     

Collaborative learning at the computer; How social processes ‘interface’ with human-computer interaction

In drawing an ‘outline sketch’ of the field of research on interactional learning situations with computers, this paper attempts to provide a general framework for the contributions which follow. After a brief overview of the theoretical grounding of studies in the field, we examine the extent to which learner-computer interaction and learner-learner interaction can interfere with or support one another.

The need for a change of theoretical perspective on the role of social interaction in learning is highlighted. It is argued that viewing collaborative learning in terms of joint negotiation of a common problem space might help in defining the optimal characteristics of educational software.

Finally, the critical role of social dimensions such as social comparisons between partners is pointed out. In conclusion, the need for more local theories, taking particular account of the learning domain, is stressed.

     

Using the PSSC Laboratory Course in the First Year of College

Summaries

English

In the physical sciences, laboratory instruction has always taken place alongside classroom instruction. Undergraduate physics education has been a mixture of theoretical and experimental instruction, where the theoretical part plays the dominant role. The freshman laboratory holds a prominent role because it is the place where the student acquires the skills and attitudes that will help him understand the advanced subjects.

The freshman laboratory is particularly important in countrieswhere the student's instruction in experimentation is practically non‐existent at the secondary‐school level. In these cases, where the freshman laboratory is the student's first exposure to experimental science, we are particularly concerned that together with learning the ‘right’ things the student should develop the ‘right’ attitudes; as the ‘right’ attitudes can encourage curiosity and motivation for lifelong learning.     

Creativity through self-directed learning: three distinct dimensions of teacher support

ABSTRACT

Self-directed learning and creativity are critical workplace competences that are important to foster in formal educational settings. Previous studies have identified a relationship between self-directed learning and creativity, but the specific nature of this relationship is unclear. The purpose of the present theoretical paper is to examine through a literature review the possibility that creative learning outcomes can be supported through a self-directed learning process. The importance of considering self-directed learning in the context of adult learning – as a pragmatic learning process – is outlined. A conclusion is drawn that (1) creative learning outcomes are potentially supported through self-directed learning, and (2) in the process, teachers can provide support to learners in three distinct different ways. A variety of pragmatic educational activities that may enable self-directed learning and creative learning outcomes are discussed, including experiential learning; workplace simulations; and problem-, case-, and (e-) portfolio-based learning. In these activities, teacher support seems advantageous for many learners. The three distinct dimensions of teacher support identified in the present paper are important to consider in further empirical studies on self-directed learning.     

Emotion and its relation to cognition from Vygotsky’s perspective

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (VST) has been increasingly utilised as an effective framework to account for the role of emotions in learning and development. Yet, within VST, emotion has neither been systemically theorised nor investigated. This paper contributes to the literature by offering a theoretical discussion of Vygotsky’s perspective on emotion and its relation to cognition. Employing a content analysis approach, three of Vygotsky’s key texts on emotions were closely read and analysed with emerging themes grouped into a system of interrelated theoretical tenets. The insights gained from this paper benefit scholars who are interested in understanding and researching emotions from a VST perspective as well as provide important implications for educational practices.

     

Gender studies: some methodological and theoretical issues

In the first part of this paper, studies are reviewed which suggest that gender differences in science achievement can be explained entirely in terms of social factors, and which also suggest that these differences could be eliminated, or even reversed, by changing the social environment. For the studies examined, it is suggested that research workers may not have taken sufficient account of confounding variables in their work, and that the apparent changes in gender differential reported may be explained in terms of these confounding variables.

In the second part of the paper, studies are reviewed which seek explanation of gender differences in science achievement in terms of unequal treatment of boys and girls by science teachers in the classroom. It is concluded that the quality of the research work which has been undertaken is disappointing, and that the research evidence provided by these studies for the differential treatment of boys and girls by science teachers is far from convincing.

It is concluded that real gender differences in science achievement do exist, and that they cannot be explained fully in terms of the social environment. It is suggested that both biological and sociological theoretical perspectives on gender differences in science achievement are inadequate, and that further progress in understanding gender differences in science achievement will require a new theoretical synthesis. It is suggested that sociobiology may provide the required new theoretical synthesis by allowing for the recognition of both biological and environmental influences on science achievement.     

Discourse analysis as theory,method, and epistemology in studies of education policy

ABSTRACT

Discourse has featured in studies of educational policy as an analytic and methodological tool, theoretical frame, realm of implication, and even a foundational definition of educational policy itself (e.g.) Despite the centrality of discourse as a frame for exploring educational policy and its implications, the ways that discourse is defined or operationalized in educational policy research are often left implicit which can lead to murky relations to larger onto-epistemological questions of how we construct findings from data as well as the nature of policy. In this interpretive analysis, we synthesize a corpus of 37 peer-reviewed journal articles that bring together educational policy and analyses of discourse from varying theoretical and methodological perspectives in order to better understand the breadth and scope of how discourse is defined and operationalized in studies of educational policy, including in ways that are sometimes incommensurate with authors' stated theoretical and methodological positions. After first laying the theoretical groundwork for analyses of discourse in the field of educational policy, we then illustrate how discourse analysis is used differently, and sometimes inconsistently, within contested paradigmatic landscapes. We conclude with an argument for discussions across theoretical frameworks and methodological paradigms about how the concept of discourse lends itself to different epistemological vantage points on educational policy.     

Identity policies of education: struggles for inclusion and exclusion in Peru and Colombia

ABSTRACT

Policy initiatives that seek to account for ethno-cultural differences in education and schooling have become increasingly popular over the past few decades. These include affirmative action measures and bilingual education models. The rationale for the implementation of these policies focuses on their potential to rectify historical discrimination by both levelling horizontal inequalities and granting equal value to different cultures and languages in the schooling process. In this framework, however, ethnic communities are often treated as discrete and static social aggregates, and social heterogeneity and spillover effects between groups are disregarded. This paper draws on empirical case studies from Colombia and Peru to show how identity policies of education can increase inter-ethnic competition, leading to protracted social conflicts. These outcomes, beyond negatively impacting local communities, raise important dilemmas surrounding the theoretical and operational foundations of these popular policy measures.     

What If We Look at the Body? An Embodied Perspective of Collaborative Learning

The bodily experiences and implications of understanding the functioning of the human brain–body mechanism has been a center of attention in the field of cognitive neurosciences for over two decades. Research in this field has enlarged the theories of learning and development, and contributed to changes in educational practices involving language processing, mathematics, and spatial thinking; however, these changes have not yet been applied to the analysis of transversal competencies such as collaborative learning. The aim of this paper is to bridge the theoretical and applied advances in the field of embodied cognition, specifically collaborative learning. The definitions, theoretical frameworks, and current methodological approaches in the field of collaborative learning are reviewed, with a particular focus on those studies that have investigated interactive dynamics in collaborative situations. The need to take the field further by exploring the theoretical perspective of embodied cognition as a possibility that can open the field is also presented. The relevance of investigating learning in groups by analyzing bodily engagements and intersubjectivity is demonstrated and methodological considerations are raised.

     

Our teachers want to be the best: on the necessity of intra‐professional reflection about moral ideals of teaching

Teaching is a significant social good and therefore teachers as well as the state have to take responsibility for guarding the moral quality of the teaching practice. Based on this premise, the article describes and defends the view that these parties have their own particular role by means of literature review and theoretical and practical arguments.

The role of the state is necessarily limited to defining minimal moral rules and obligations, because in liberal Western democracies morality is codified in law to a minimal degree. The state also has practical reasons for such a confined position, among which are the complexities of professional practice and its implied tacit knowledge.

Teachers have to take responsibility for constructing the full width of professional morality, but particularly for defining its optimal or aspirational dimension. This dimension comprises the virtues deemed important for teachers as well as their professional ideals. Whereas the literature on professional ethics of teachers is relatively silent about professional ideals, several arguments are provided for the importance of ideals for teachers.

The final part of the article defends the claim that teachers have to articulate their professional ideals through intra‐professional dialogue. Again, theoretical and practical arguments are provided, for instance that such a debate provokes teachers to think about the best aims and means of their profession and that it contributes to the sense and meaning of their work. The article ends with some practical implications of the theoretical exposé.     

It threw me for a loop!: Preservice teachers’ reactions to issues‐centered social studies in the primary grades

Abstract

There is a strong theoretical base supporting the use of issues‐centered social studies. Even so, little information exists regarding its implementation at the elementary level. This reflective inquiry examines preservice teachers’ responses to my methods course, which was designed to promote issues‐centered social studies in the primary grades. The obstacles that we all encountered are discussed as well as a call for research focused on the design and implementation of issues‐centered social studies and its influence on teaching and learning in elementary classrooms. © 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.     

A systematic literature review of student engagement in software visualization: a theoretical perspective

ABSTRACT

Background and Context: In spite of the decades spent developing software visualization (SV), doubts still remain regarding their effectiveness. Furthermore, student engagement plays an important role in improving SV effectiveness as it is correlated with many positive academic outcomes. It has been shown that the existing SV has failed to engage students effectively.

Objective: Therefore, there is a need to understand the theories behind SV design from the engagement perspective to produce a roadmap for future tool construction. The aim of this study was to identify the theories have been used in literature to explain or construct student engage- ment with SV in computer science courses for novices.

Method: We performed a systematic literature review that identified a total of 58 articles published between 2011 and 2017, which were then selected for the study. However, among them, only 18 articles had discussed their theoretical framework.

Findings: The results of this study show a richness in the theoretical framework obtained from different disciplines, however, constructivism is still dominant in the computing education research (CER) domain. It is evidently clear from the findings that the theories generated from the CER domain are needed to enhance the effectiveness of SV.

Implications: As a result of this review, we suggest several design principles and engagement attributes to be considered while creating an engaging SV.     

Digital game building: learning in a participatory culture

Background: Research findings indicate that developing good relationships with pupils, managing classroom processes adequately and developing confidence and trust with other teachers are among the aspects of teaching that are found to be challenging. Although many studies conclude that collaborative reflection is a crucial activity for supporting teachers’ professional development in school, studies that focus on what teachers reflect on and how they reflect are more limited.

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to improve our understanding of what situations teachers experience as challenging in their teaching, what types of help they seek when trying to manage such situations and, furthermore, how teachers reflect together on how to develop as teachers, when they have time to collaborate.

Sources of information and method: The study aimed to explore these areas theoretically by bringing together data from, and discussing the implications of (1) an interview study and (2) a formative intervention study which involved teachers from lower secondary schools in Norway working with a researcher–participant. The data were analysed by using the constant comparative method of analyses. By discussing aspects of these two studies together, the research aimed to identify and address some of the theoretical questions pertinent to teacher development.

Findings and conclusions: The analysis and discussion of the data from the two studies illuminates teachers’ recognition of the value of having time to reflect together. It also indicates, however, that it is not only a matter of teachers having time to observe, reflect together and focus on their development processes: the types of discourse used during collaborative reflection must also be suitable. The researcher–participant’s role highlighted the untapped potential to be found by looking into how language is used in dialogues aimed at supporting teacher development. Helping teachers to develop the skills to reflect collaboratively and constructively, in a way that ultimately improves teaching and learning, is therefore an important challenge for teacher education and the education of teachers and school leaders.     

Place et rôle des stages dans la formation initiale des enseignants en France

Preservice teacher education in France consists of:

subject oriented studies in a university,

recruitment by means of a state competitive examination which may be prepared in a university,

professional training in a training centre, including both subject oriented studies and practice periods in classrooms.

Preschool and primary teacher training includes two years at a university to obtain the required degree for competition and then two years in a college of education. Secondary level teacher training includes more years at a university as the level of competition is high. It takes at least three years to become a graduate, four years in the other case. But the preparation of the competition in itself requires more time for most people. When admitted to the competitive examination, the teacher has one year in a training centre.

This paper will present:

1. the legal basis, curricula, content, structure and aims of practical studies at the two levels (preschool‐primary/secondary levels);

2. the difference and convergence of thinking about practical studies at the two levels: the main principle seems to be that pedagogical and practice studies make up for a lack of theoretical knowledge, but that, consequently, they are not considered really useful for those who do have theoretical knowledge;

3. the difficulties of achieving the official objective concerning an integrated training with links between theoretical studies and practice periods,

4. an innovative approach to this problem by means of a case study which put into practice the hypothesis brought out in the research I have led at the INRP about primary school teacher training.

The organisational models and the place given to practice periods in the whole teacher education raise the problem of what is a professional teacher training and what is its aim.     

Comparing variation theory with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development: more similarities than differences?

ABSTRACT

Lo’s variation theory is a learning and teaching theory based on Marton’s phenomenographic approach and is one of the most important backbones of learning studies. The proponents of variation theory demarcate their approach from constructivist learning approaches, stressing constructivism as philosophical framework, but not as learning theory. At the same time, the phenomenographic approach emphasizes the importance of Piaget’s work about the cognitive development, which should be considered when talking about learning and teaching. We argue that – from a theoretical point of view – Piaget’s theory of how cognitive schemata are developed and how variation theory proposes that learning can be fostered entails many similarities which are not apparent at first glance. We demonstrate the similarities and differences using a teaching example from an English as second language classroom and show the implications for practical instructional work. Finally, we discuss concrete suggestions how variation theory could benefit even more from Piaget’s theory.     

Constructing minzu: the representation of minzu and Zhonghua Minzu in Chinese elementary textbooks

ABSTRACT

This article examines the role of school textbooks on nation-building in China by examining how the Chinese concepts of minzu and Zhonghua Minzu are constructed in elementary language and social studies textbooks. This study draws on the relationships between ideology and school curriculum as its theoretical framework and adopts a combination of content analysis and critical discourse analysis to critically examine content about minzu in these textbooks. The findings of this study reveal the ambiguous meanings of the word minzu in the examined textbooks and the process through which its semantic ambiguity is contributing to the discursive construction of the Zhonghua Minzu ideology, which is important for China to position itself as a unified, multiethnic country. The use of metaphoric languages and strategic rendering of two key narratives, humiliation and civilization in Chinese history, also help to solidify the Zhonghua Minzu identity.     

Discourse of derision: the role of the mass media within the education policy process

It is asserted that the mass media play a significant part in the education policy process, yet this contribution has received little attention in empirical and theoretical analyses. Convergence between theoretical work on education policy and media studies in linking social institutions with the economy in the perpetuation of social inequalities, while accepting their relative autonomy, provides a starting point for incorporation of the media role in conceptualization of the education policy process. Concepts which may assist the exploration of the media role within education policy are denned, including the anthropological notion of myths. These concepts are employed in analysing a policy issue wherein the British government and the mass media framed the relevant debate as a polarization between progressive and traditional education. The analysis draws on the experience of a primary school which was portrayed in a current affairs television programme as exemplifying progressive educational practices. Topics that would benefit from further study are suggested.     

Sex and Cultural Differences in Performance on Certain Verbal Creativity Measures

Abstract

This study Investigated a previously found superiority of girls on Torrance and Barron verbal creativity measures. It was hypothesized that fluency Is the critical factor accounting for the sex differences and, If so, the differences should be apparent In other cultures as well as our own. Performance of pupils in New York State and the Isle of Skye was compared.

The New York results on the Torrance closely parallel those found in previous studies. However, In Skye there are no significant sex differences with the exception of two instances in which hoys are superior. The trend of sex differences on the Barron in Skye Is the same as In previous studies in the United States, although not as in the present American sample.

Cultural factors seem most important, not only for sex differences hut also for significant differences found between performances of pupils in the two countries. It would appear that the Torrance creativity measures employed In this study are culturally hound, as arc many of the traditional intelligence tests.