High-School Subjects as Conditioners of College Success

Abstract

This study examines the utility of the Ban- natyne recategorization system in discriminating among three groups of handicapped students. A stepwise discriminant functions analysis was performed on the subtest scaled scores from the WISC-R for 294 learning disabled (LD), 36 educably mentally retarded (EMR), and 71 emotionally disturbed (ED) students. The results of this analysis revealed that 100 percent of the EMR and ED students were predicted to be labeled LD on the basis of this recategorization, while 99.7 percent of the LD students were predicted to be LD. These findings are examined in relation to the use of alternative statistical methods and different diagnostic procedures to identify and classify students.     

Autonomy and competence as motivational factors in students with learning disabilities and emotional handicaps.

Over 450 students (136 elementary, 321 junior and senior high school) with primary handicapping codes of learning disability (LD) or emotional handicap (EH) completed several questionnaires. All participants were from self-contained classrooms of a state-operated special education system. Questionnaires assessed students' self-perceptions and perceptions of home and classroom contexts, with all variables theoretically reflecting either the competence or the autonomy aspects of internal motivation or students' personal adjustment. Math and reading standardized achievement test scores were obtained from school records. Using multiple regression analyses, students' achievement and adjustment were predicted from the motivationally relevant self-perception and perception-of-context variables. Interestingly, different patterns of relations emerged for the students with LD and EH.     

Statistical and individual temporal stability of the WISC-R for cognitively disabled adolescents

This study examines the temporal stability of the WISC-R for 155 13-and 14-year-old adolescents identified as either EMR or LD who were involved in special education during the preceding three-year time period. The three major scales of the WISC-R were found to be more stable over a three-year period for the LD than for the EMR group, while the subtest scales for the EMR group, showed greater stability over the three-year interval. Test-retest coefficients for the EMR group were substantially lower than those presented in the WISC-R test manual. A large proportion of individuals within both groups showed statistically significant differences on one or more of the IQ score scales between testings based on standard errors of measurement. These findings are examined in relation to individual placement of students, reporting confidence intervals in reports, and calculation of the best unbiased estimate of intellectual functioning.     

Validation of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth edition with exceptional black male students

Standard Age Scores on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition (SBIV) and WISC-R IQs of 51 urban black males receiving special education services were compared. Correlations between the SBIV Composite scores and WISC-R Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQs were 0.803, 0.826, and 0.87 respectively. Correlations between all combinations of scales ranged from 0.612 to 0.888, median r=.723. SBIV Composite mean scores did not differ significantly from the mean WISC-R Full Scale, Verbal, and Performance IQs. Regression analysis of the three subgroups (BD. LD, and EMR) indicated that the SBIV possesses differential validity for each group. Tabular comparison of precision of classification between the SBIV and the WISC-R yielded a 78% agreement. These data suggest that the SBIV possesses utility for assessing the intelligence of black students classified as BD and EMR. However, the use of the scale with LD students is unsupported.     

Diagnostic utility of the number of Wisc‐III subtests deviating from mean performance among students with learning disabilities

This paper examined the diagnostic utility of subtest variability, as represented by the number of subtests that deviate from examinees' mean IQ scores, for identifying students with a learning disability (LD). Participants consisted of the 2,200 students in the WISC‐III normative sample and 684 students (Mdngrade = 5; Mage = 10.8) identified as LD. The number of subtests deviating from examinees' Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ by ±3 points for normative and exceptional samples were contrasted via Receiver Operating Curve (ROC) analyses. Results indicated that LD students did not differ from normative sample children at levels above chance. It was concluded that deviation of individual subtest scores from mean IQ scores has no diagnostic utility for hypothesizing about students with learning disabilities. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Concurrent validity of the Woodcock-Johnson tests of cognitive ability with the WISC-R: EMR children

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability (WJTCA) were administered in a counterbalanced order to 30 children referred for a three-year reevaluation. All children were currently placed in an educable mentally retarded (EMR) program. The children ranged in age from 8-0 to 12-5 years, with a mean of 10-6. The correlation coefficient between the WISC-R and WJTCA was observed to be .72. Significant mean differences were found between the WISC-R and WJTCA full scale standard scores. The implications of the findings are discussed relative to the placement of children in classes for the mentally retarded. Explanations for the mean differences between the WJTCA and WISC-R also are explored.     

Significant predictors of test anxiety among students with and without learning disabilities

In the present study, the relationship between students with and without learning disabilities (LD) and different aspects of test anxiety was examined on a new multidimensional measure of test anxiety. A sample of 774 elementary and secondary school students--195 students with LD and 579 students not identified with LD--completed the Test Anxiety Inventory for Children and Adolescents (TAICA), a new multidimensional measure of test anxiety for elementary and secondary school students in Grades 4 through 12. Examination of the factor structure of the TAICA scores across LD status to determine whether accurate test score interpretation was possible revealed that the majority of the coefficient of congruence values between each pair of six corresponding factors of the TAICA (Cognitive Obstruction/ Inattention, Performance Enhancement/Facilitation Anxiety, Physiological Hyperarousal, Social Humiliation, Worry, and Lie) and the Total Test Anxiety factor were above .90, and the salient variable similarity index values were statistically significant, suggesting that the factor structure of the TAICA was similar across groups. The results of seven multiple regression analyses revealed that LD predicted higher Cognitive Obstruction/Inattention and Worry scores and lower Performance Enhancement/Facilitation Anxiety and Lie scores. Implications of the findings for school personnel who work with students with LD are discussed.     

The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) in the assessment of learning disabled children

The authors of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) assert that, in addition to a discrepancy between learning potential and academic achievement, learning disability is characterized by poor sequential relative to simultaneous processing skills. The present study was designed to determine whether the K-ABC could discriminate between learning disabled and normal children on the basis of these characteristics. Forty-three LD pupils from 7 to 12 years of age and 20 normally achieving children of similar age were administered the K-ABC. Results indicated that, for both the LD and the normal children, scores on the Sequential Processing Scale were significantly lower than on the Simultaneous Processing Scale. In addition, the aiscrepancy between Simultaneous and Sequential scale scores was similarly distributed in both groups. The LD group scored lower and the normal group higher on the Achievement Scale than on the Mental Processing Composite. The results, therefore, indicated that the K-ABC differentiated LD from normal children in terms of Achievement relative to M.P.C. scores; however, it failed to reveal a unique profile pattern related to simultaneous vs. sequential processing skills for the LD group. Further analyses of the relationship between K-ABC processing scale scores and WISC-R scores, as recategorized by Bannatyne, revealed significant correlations between measures, indicating similar underlying theoretical constructs.     

WISC-R verbal and performance abilities of native american students referred for school learning problems

This study was designed to determine if three diagnostic groups of Navajo children differed on intellectual dimensions as measured by the WISC-R. Subjects had been previously diagnosed by state certified professionals and were identified as nonhan dicapped (NH) (N = 113), educationally disadvantaged.(ED) (N = 189), and learning disabled (LD) (N = 150). NH group means on all WISC-R variables were significantly higher than the LD group means. The ED and the LD group means were similar on the verbal measures, but the LD group scores were lower than the ED group scores on performance measures. The NH group demonstrated intellectual abilities and deficits similar to those reported for other primary-grade Navajo children who had not been referred for suspected handicapping conditions.     

Emotional adjustment and school functioning of young adolescents with multiple versus single learning disabilities

Early adolescents (Grades 6-8) with multiple learning disabilities (LD; reading and math) in inclusive settings were compared to adolescents with single LD (reading or math) and typically achieving (TA) peers regarding their psychosocial functioning in two areas of adolescent well-being: emotional adjustment and school functioning. The Behavior Assessment System for Children (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1998) Self-Report of Personality for adolescents was used to determine well-being. One hundred twenty middle school students-15 boys and 15 girls in each group-were included in the current study. The results confirmed that adolescents with multiple LD (reading and math) reported poorer functioning (i.e., higher T scores) on school maladjustment, clinical maladjustment, emotional symptoms index, attitude to school, atypicality, and depression when compared to TA peers but not when compared to peers with a single LD (reading or math). All three groups differed from the TA group (but not from each other) on sense of inadequacy, with the multiple LD group reporting the highest T scores. Additional analyses indicated significant differences between girls and boys, regardless of disability status. Girls reported higher T scores on the emotional symptoms index, social stress, and depression, but boys reported greater school maladjustment and sensation seeking. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Cognitive functioning as measured by the WISC-R: do children with learning disabilities have distinctive patterns of performance?

Patterns of performance on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) have been proposed as useful tools for the identification of children with learning disabilities (LD). However, most of the studies of WISC-R patterns in children with LD have been plagued by the lack of a typically achieving comparison group, by failure to measure individual patterns, and by the lack of a precise definition of LD. In an attempt to address these flaws and to assess the presence of patterns of performance on the WISC-R, we examined data from 121 children with typical achievement (TA), 143 children with reading disabilities (RD), and 100 children with a specific arithmetic disability (AD), ages 6 to 16 years. The results indicated that the RD and AD groups had significantly lower scores than the TA group on all the Verbal IQ subtests. Many of the children with AD and RD showed a significant difference between Verbal and Performance IQ scores, but so did many of the typically achieving children. Although there were some children with LD who showed the predicted patterns, typically, 65% or more of the children with LD did not. Furthermore, a proportion of the TA group-generally not significantly smaller than that of the RD and AD groups-showed discrepancy patterns as well. Our results indicate that the patterns of performance on intelligence tests are not reliable enough for the diagnosis of LD in individual children. Therefore, it might be more profitable to base the detection of an individual's LD on patterns of achievement test scores.     

Psychometric approaches to the identification of LD: IQ and achievement scores are not sufficient

Simulated data were used to demonstrate that groups formed by imposing cut-points based on either discrepancy or low-achievement definitions of learning disabilities (LD) are unstable over time. Similar problems were demonstrated in longitudinal data from the Connecticut Longitudinal Study, where 39% of the children designated as having LD in Grade 3 changed group placement with repeated testing in Grade 5. These results show that the practice of subdividing a normal distribution with arbitrary cut-points leads to instability in group membership. Approaches to the identification of children as having LD based solely on individual test scores not linked to specific behavioral criteria lead to invalid decisions about individual children. Low-achievement definitions are not a viable alternative to IQ-discrepancy definitions in the absence of other criteria, such as the traditional exclusions and response to quality intervention. If we accept the premise of multiple classes of low achievers, then we must develop identification systems that are valid and abandon systems whose only merits are their historical precedence and convenience.     

ERRATUM

Children with mild developmental disorders sometimes show giftedness. In this study, an original checklist was developed to identify gifted characteristics specific to science learning among twice‐exceptional primary school children in Japan. The checklist consisted of 60 items on Attitudes, Thinking, Skills, and Knowledge/Understanding. A total of 86 children from eight primary schools in an urban area in Japan, 50% of whom had Learning Disabilities (LD), Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and/or High‐functioning Autism (HA), were observed using the checklist. Factor analysis revealed three factors. A cluster analysis with the subscale points of each factor identified three “gifted styles” in science. These were: (1) Spontaneous Style; (2) Expert Style; and (3) Solid Style. LD/ADHD/HA children characteristically displayed a Spontaneous Style while the non‐ LD/ADHD/HA children were characterized by the Solid Style. In both subject groups, the number of Expert Style children was the lowest with no significant difference in their numbers. Based on the results of this research, this paper discusses the implications of the findings for teaching science to twice‐exceptional children and argues the benefits of inclusive science education for children with and without mild developmental disorders.     

Measuring stability and change in WISC-R IQS

Webster (1988) assessed WISC-R IQ stability in samples of adolescents identified as EMR and LD. It is argued here that Webster used an inappropriate standard error of measurement in his study. This resulted in magnified estimates of the number of individuals who obtained significantly discrepant IQs from one test admnistration to the next. Webster's analyses therefore exaggerated the degree of test-retest instability inherent in WISC-R IQs.     

Special education placement decisions as a function of professional role and handicapping condition

The restrictiveness of special education placements was examined by profession (administrators, school psychologists, and special education teacters) and by type of handicapping condition (mental retardation [MR], emotional disturbance [ED], and learning disability [LD]). A total of 66 professionals (22 in each profession) assigned placement scores, using the Rucker-Gable Educational Placement Scale, on the basis of three psychological reports (one MR, ED, and LD case per professional). Results indicated that the average placement scores for the three cases combined did not differ significantly by profession. However, a significant interaction occurred, with administrators assigning the MR and ED cases to more restrictive placements than both the school psychologists and special educators, only to shift to a relatively less restrictive approach with the LD case. Implications of these findings are discussed, including a discussion of the multidisciplinary approach to clinical decision making.     

An operational definition of learning disabilities (cognitive domain) using WISC full scale IQ and peabody individual achievement test scores

An operational index of discrepancy to assist in identifying learning disabilities (LD) in the cognitive domain was derived using the Full Scale IQ, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (Wechsler, 1949, and relevant subtest scores on the Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT) (Dunn and Markwardt, 1970. The index was applied to all legally identified LD children (N = 60) of a Michigan county who were in the LD program (1% of the total elementary school population of 6000 children). Of the 50 males and 10 females (mean age: 9 years 2 months; mean IQ: 91), the index identified 74% and 30% respectively as may be LD in the cognitive domain. This comprised 67% of the 60 children, or 2/3 of 1 % of the total elementary school population. Of the 67% may be LD children, 93% had discrepancy low PIAT subtest scores in Reading Recognition, 88% in Reading Comprehension, 83% in Spelling, and 52% in Arithmetic. Considerable caution should be exercised when classifying children, especially females, as LD.     

Ten Years of Research: A Systematic Review of Three Refereed LD Journals

Content analyses of journals in the field of LD provide a means of surveying research and publication trends, the knowledge of which may inform policy and practice related to future research agendas. As the first decade of the current millennium was particularly contentious for the field of LD, we felt that a content review would be timely. In this paper, the content of three refereed LD journals—Journal of Learning Disabilities, Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, and Learning Disabilities Quarterly—was analyzed. Articles from 2001–2010 (n = 841) were systematically coded to capture article type, area of interest, population of interest, sample characteristics, and inclusion of students with LD. Results indicate that across the decade, (a) 68% of articles reported empirical research; (b) empirical research trended up; (c) publication of intervention research remained steady; (d) the most common foci were literacy and the non‐academic characteristics of individuals with LD; and (e) inclusion of participants labeled as having a LD declined. We discuss trends, possible explanations, and implications, highlighting areas for future research.     

The Effects of Strategic Notetaking on the Recall and Comprehension of Lecture Information for High School Students with Learning Disabilities

This investigation examined the effects of strategic notetaking on the recall and comprehension of high school students with learning disabilities (LD) or educable mental retardation (EMR). Twenty-six students with high incidence disabilities (LD or EMR) were randomly assigned by grade and disability to either an experimental or control group. Using strategic notetaking, students in the experimental group were taught to independently take notes while viewing a videotaped lecture. Students who were taught strategic notetaking scored significantly higher on measures of immediate free recall, long-term free recall, comprehension, and number of notes recorded than students in the control group who used conventional notetaking. The limitations of the research and implications of this technique for classroom application are discussed.     

Effect of EMR placement models on affective and social development

The study investigated the effects of three EMR placement models on children's social and affective development. The Barclay Classroom Climate Inventory (BCCI) was administered to 45 randomly selected classes from a population of 115 classes representing Self-Contained (SC), Selected Academic Placement (SAP), and Learning Center (LC) models. For SAP and LC children, BCCI assessments were obtained in both EMR and regular class settings. The BCCI data comprised self, peer, and teacher expectations. Results indicated that the SC setting resulted in the strongest support in terms of acceptance, and the SAP-EMR settings resulted in the fewest suspected problems. Thus it appears that stronger social support systems exist and fewer problems emerge for the children who are placed with others of similar cognitive ability.