Working memory capacity and reading skill moderate the effectiveness of strategy training in learning from hypertext

Cognitive and metacognitive strategies are particularly important for learning with hypertext. The effectiveness of strategy training, however, depends on available working memory resources. Thus, especially learners high on working memory capacity can profit from strategy training, while learners low on working memory capacity might easily be overtaxed. In addition, efficient basic reading comprehension processes are important for strategy training to be successful: When both the newly acquired strategies and poorly routinized basic reading comprehension processes compete for working memory resources, navigation within the hypertext and learning might deteriorate rather than improve. In an experiment, 64 undergraduates learned with a comprehensive expository hypertext after receiving either a cognitive or a metacognitive or no strategy training. In line with the predictions, learners high on working memory capacity or reading skill could profit from learning strategy training in terms of learning outcomes and the quality of their navigational behavior. Learners low on working memory capacity or reading skill, in contrast, performed worse in both training conditions compared to the control condition. The improvement in learning outcomes for skilled learners as well as the impairment in learning outcomes for unskilled learners could be shown to be indirect effects mediated by the quality of navigational behavior.     

Working memory capacity and disfluency effect: an aptitude-treatment-interaction study

According to Cognitive Load Theory, learning material should be designed in a way to decrease unnecessary demands on working memory (WM). However, recent research has shown that additional demands on WM caused by less legible texts lead to better learning outcomes. This so-called disfluency effect can be assumed as a metacognitive regulation process during which learners assign their cognitive resources depending on the perceived difficulty of a cognitive task. Increasing the perceived difficulty associated with a cognitive task stimulates deeper processing and a more analytic and elaborative reasoning. Yet there are studies which could not replicate the disfluency effect indicating that disfluency might be beneficial only for learners with particular learner characteristics. Additional demands on working memory caused by disfluent texts are possibly just usable by learners with a high working memory capacity. Therefore the present study investigated the aptitude-treatment-interaction between working memory capacity and disfluency. Learning outcomes were measured by means of a retention, a comprehension, and a transfer test. Moreover, the three types of cognitive load (intrinsic, extraneous, and germane) were assessed. The results revealed significant aptitude-treatment-interaction effects with respect to retention and comprehension. Working memory capacity had a significant influence only in the disfluency condition: The higher the working memory capacity, the better the retention and comprehension performance in the disfluency condition. No effects were found with respect to transfer or cognitive load. Thus, the role of metacognitive regulation and its possible effects on cognitive load need further investigation.     

Do learning protocols support learning strategies and outcomes? The role of cognitive and metacognitive prompts

Although writing learning protocols is an effective follow-up course work activity, many learners tend to do it in a rather suboptimal way. Hence, we analyzed the effects of instructional support in the form of prompts. The effects of different types of prompts were investigated in an experiment with four conditions: cognitive prompts, metacognitive prompts, a combination of cognitive and metacognitive prompts, or no prompts (N = 84 undergraduate psychology students). We found that the prompts stimulated the elicitation of cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies. The provision of purely metacognitive prompts did not, however, improve learning outcomes. Only the groups who had received cognitive, or a combination of cognitive and metacognitive, prompts learned more than the control group. This effect was mediated by cognitive learning strategies. The learners in the successful groups did not perceive the prompted learning strategies as more helpful than the learners of the group without prompts. It can be concluded that cognitive prompts—alone or in combination with metacognitive prompts—are an effective means to foster learning. However, additional means should be employed in order to convince the learner of the usefulness of such prompts.     

Relationships between teachers’ metacognitive knowledge and students’ metacognitive knowledge and reading achievement

The study examined the relationships between teachers’ metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies and their students’ metacognitive knowledge and reading comprehension. The study was carried out among language art teachers (N?=?34) and their students (N?=?534) in the last year of primary school (ninth grade) in Estonia. Multilevel modeling was used to test the hypotheses of relationships between students’ metacognitive knowledge and reading comprehension, while controlling for students’ previous reading comprehension (in eighth grade) as well as the relations between teachers’ metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies and students’ metacognitive knowledge and comprehension. The results showed that students’ metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies related to their reading comprehension, concurring with previous findings. The main finding was that teachers’ metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies significantly related to their students’ metacognitive knowledge, but not to reading comprehension. These results indicate that students’ reading comprehension may be supported by improving their metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies. In addition, the findings highlight the importance of teachers’ metacognitive knowledge in students’ metacognitive knowledge.     

Precursors of metamemory in young children: the role of theory of mind and metacognitive vocabulary

This paper describes findings of a longitudinal study that was carried out to examine relationships among different aspects of young children's cognitive development, namely, theory of mind, metacognitive vocabulary, and metamemory, which seem theoretically connected but so far have not been studied simultaneously. In total, 174 children were included in the present analyses who were about 4;6 years of age at the first measurement point. Children were tested at four time points, separated by a testing interval of approximately half a year. At the first time of testing, children completed a set of theory of mind tasks. At each of the following measurement points, measures of metacognitive vocabulary and general vocabulary as well as metamemory were given. Overall, the findings show that theory of mind performance assessed at the age of 4;6 predicts metacognitive knowledge assessed about one and a half years later. Furthermore, they point to a reciprocal relationship between metacognitive vocabulary and metamemory in that comprehension of metacognitive vocabulary predicted later metamemory and, conversely, metamemory significantly predicted later comprehension of metacognitive verbs. This research was supported by a grant from the German Research Foundation (SCHN 315 /20–7) to the German Research Group on Cognitive Development.     

Exploring the relationship between reading strategy use and multiple intelligences among successful L2 readers

Over the years, the multiple intelligences theory (MIT) proposed by Howard Gardner has renewed interest in learners’ use of effective learning strategies and produced interesting results. This MIT-oriented study investigated the role of successful L2 readers’ multiple intelligences in their effective use of reading strategies. To this end, a TOEFL reading comprehension test was administered to a cohort of 135 English as a foreign language students at several universities in the southwest and centre of Iran, and 80 students were identified as successful L2 readers based on the ETS rating scale and their TOEFL scores. Then, they answered an MI questionnaire originally developed by Armstrong and a reading strategies inventory adapted by Singhal. The data were quantitatively analysed using correlations and multiple regressions. The results revealed that linguistic, logical–mathematical and intrapersonal intelligences were the good L2 readers’ most dominant intelligences, while bodily intelligence was the least common type. In addition, they mostly employed metacognitive and cognitive strategies but rarely drew upon affective and compensation strategies while reading. Further, there was a significant positive relationship between linguistic, logical–mathematical, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences and the use of metacognitive and cognitive reading strategies. Similar relationships were also found between linguistic intelligence and the participants’ use of memory strategy, on one hand, and between interpersonal intelligence and compensation and social strategy use, on the other. Importantly, linguistic and intrapersonal intelligences as well as metacognitive and cognitive strategy use were shown to be the best predictors of reading comprehension. Finally, the theoretical or pedagogical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Improving self-regulation, learning strategy use, and achievement with metacognitive feedback

Comprehension of science topics occurs when learners meaningfully generate relationships and conceptions about what they read. In this generation process, learners’ cognitive and metacognitive regulation is one of the most critical factors influencing learning. However, learners are not always successful in regulating their own learning, especially in computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) where they are alone. Based on this rationale, the present study was designed to examine the effects of two scaffolding strategies—generative learning strategy prompts and metacognitive feedback—on learners’ comprehension and self-regulation while learning the human heart system in a CBLE. Participants were 223 undergraduate student volunteers. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to conceptualize and empirically test a model that explains mediating processes among variables. Results revealed that the combination of generative learning strategy prompts with metacognitive feedback improved learners’ recall and comprehension by enhancing learners’ self-regulation and better use of highlighting and summarizing as generative learning strategies.     

The impact of media multitasking on learning

While multitasking is not a new concept, it has received increasing attention in recent years with the development of new media and technologies. Recent trends appear to suggest that multitasking is on the rise among the younger generation. The purpose of the study is to determine if students obtain more or less information in multitasking conditions. We examined the relationships of multitasking to attention, cognitive load and media with 130 college student participants. In this study, participants were given a timed (16 minutes) reading comprehension test in three conditions: Silence (only reading), Background multitasking (reading with a non-tested video shown simultaneously), and Test multitasking (reading with a tested video shown simultaneously) conditions. Our findings indicated that: (1) participants in the Background condition performed as well as those in the Silence condition, and (2) when participants were tested on their video comprehension, the group in the Test condition performed significantly better than the group in the Background condition. The results of this study suggest that cognitive load plays an important role in determining how much information is retained when students perform more than one task at a time.     

Metacognitive knowledge in primary grades: A longitudinal study

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to explore the development of metacognitive knowledge in primary grade children (6–9 years, n=196) from pre-school to third grade. Knowledge about cognitive processes was obtained from children’s oral explanations. The results indicated that the average metacognitive knowledge of the primary grade children developed significantly during the first three school years. The children knew much about simple factors and strategies influencing cognitive activities, but after the first three school years, more complex strategies still remained unfamiliar to them. Moreover, the content analyses of children’s oral explanations revealed interesting differences in children’s metacognitive thinking. There appeared to be two groups of children with either non-developing or developing explanations. In addition, the children understood mental processing better in memory and learning activities, whereas comprehension processes were largely unknown to them.     

基于元认知策略上的高职高专英语听力教学技能探索

听力理解过程既是学生主动参与语言交际的过程,又是学生创造性地建构意义的过程。本文在阐释元认知策略对培养学生自主学习能力所起的重要作用的基础上,主要探讨了元认知策略在高职高专英语听力教学中的恰当运用,旨在运用元认知策略采取相应的听力策略和技能,优化听力学习,使学生更好的把握听力思维过程,从而提高学生的听力理解水平。     

基于元认知理论的英语专业高级听力教学

近几年来，元认知理论在英语听力教学研究中受到重视，但鲜有学者对英语专业高级听力教学进行元认知方面的研究。对元认知理论框架下的英语专业高年级听力教学进行初步探讨，结合高级听力教学目标及特点，提出了一些有利于培养学生元认知意识，增加元认知知识，掌握元认知策略的有效方法。     

Knowing what you know: improving metacomprehension and calibration accuracy in digital text

This paper presents results from an experimental study that examined embedded strategy prompts in digital text and their effects on calibration and metacomprehension accuracies. A sample population of 80 college undergraduates read a digital expository text on the basics of photography. The most robust treatment (mixed) read the text, generated a summary for each page of text, and then was prompted with a metacognitive strategy. The metacognitive treatment received metacognitive strategy prompts only, and the cognitive group implemented the cognitive strategy (summarization) only. A control group read the text with no embedded support. Groups were compared on measures of achievement, attitudes, cognitive load, and metacomprehension and calibration accuracy. Results indicated that a combination of embedded cognitive and metacognitive strategies in digital text improved learner achievement on application-level questions, yielded more accurate predictive calibration, and strengthened the relationship between metacomprehension and performance, all of which are common attributes of an academically successful learner.     

Structures of cognitive and metacognitive reading strategy use for reading comprehension of geometry proof

In this study, we explored the structural relationship between the students’ perceived use of cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies (CMRS) and their reading comprehension of geometry proof (RCGP), and we also examined the differences in students’ perceived use of reading strategies among the poor, moderate and good comprehenders. A sample of ninth graders (N = 533) completed a RCGP test and then the CMRS questionnaire. In the exploratory factor analysis with one subsample (n = 150), principal component analysis was used to extract factors of CMRS use for improving the CMRS instrument. Another subsample of students (n = 370) participated in the study on the confirmatory factor analysis with structural equation modelling method. Results revealed that the use of metacognitive reading strategies exerts an executive function over that of cognitive reading strategies, which directly influenced students’ RCGP. Our interesting findings were that good comprehenders tended to employ more metacognitive reading strategies for planning and monitoring comprehension and more cognitive reading strategies for elaborating proof compared with the moderate comprehenders, who in turn employed these strategies more often compared with the poor comprehenders.     

Developmental patterns of school students' motivational‐ and cognitive‐metacognitive competencies

This study examined the metacognitive developmental patterns of Hong Kong school students. Students rated their own metacognitive competencies by responding to an inventory of six motivational‐ and cognitive‐metacognitive subscales. Results showed that students' metacognitive competencies decreased with age—from primary 4 (age 9) to secondary 5 (age 17)—with a sharp decline noticeable at the primary/secondary school transition. Age had a more powerful effect than gender on students' perception of their metacognitive competencies. This decreasing pattern of Hong Kong students' metacognitive competencies is contrary to the developmental trends found in Western countries. However, the comparatively high academic performance of Hong Kong students also suggests some different recommendations about student learning.     

Metacognition, achievement goals, study strategies and academic achievement: pathways to achievement

The purpose of this research was to develop and test a model of effective self-regulated learning. Based on effort expenditure we discerned effective self-regulators and less effective self-regulators. The model comprised achievement goals (mastery, performance-approach and -avoidance goals), metacognition (metacognitive knowledge, regulation and experience), study strategies (metacognitive, deep cognitive, surface cognitive and resource management strategies) and academic achievement. The relationships in the model were tested with controlling for intellectual ability, gender and age. The results showed that effective self-regulated learning involved two pathways: a metacognitive and a strategy pathway. The first pathway involved a positive relationship of mastery goals and a negative relationship of performance-avoidance goals with metacognition. Metacognition positively affected the use of the four study strategies. The strategy pathway involved positive effects of mastery and performance-approach goals on the use of metacognitive and deep cognitive strategies. Further, performance-approach goals positively affected the use of surface cognitive and resource management strategies. The use of metacognitive and resource management strategies had a positive and the use of surface cognitive strategies had a negative effect on exam scores.     

Effects of metacognitive strategy instruction and instruction time on reading comprehension

Ten-year-old students in an experimental group and a control group were tested for metacognitive abilities in reading comprehension before and after implementation of treatment in the experimental group. The teachers of the students in the experimental group were trained in metacognitive strategy instruction and in optimizing instruction time for reading comprehension. The learning gains made by the students in the experimental group in metacognitive abilities for reading comprehension turned out to be significantly greater than those made by the students in the control group. In the next school, year the students in the former experimental group and the former control group were tested for reading comprehension. It turned out that the students in the former experimental group had significantly better results on reading comprehension than the students in the former control group.     

When is the best time to use rubrics in flipped learning? A study on students’ learning achievement,metacognitive awareness,and cognitive load

ABSTRACT

Rubrics can guide teachers to provide effective feedback and students’ peer- and self-assessment. This paper examines the effect of rubric use in flipped learning activities on students’ learning achievement, metacognitive awareness, and cognitive load through a quasi-experiment. A total of 83 university students were randomly assigned to an experimental group or a control group. The students in the experimental group were given rubrics in performing pre-class learning activities on the cloud platform, while those in the control group used rubrics in post-class assessment and modification of their finished works. The results show that rubric use can assist flipped learning by improving students’ learning achievement and metacognitive awareness, while reducing their cognitive load. Using rubrics before in-class work can yield stronger benefits in raising metacognitive awareness and lessening cognitive load. Moreover, the study reveals that students tend to hold a generally favorable attitude toward rubric use. These findings imply that appropriate use of rubrics in flipped learning has the potential to create a more efficient and learner-friendly condition to enhance self-regulated learning.     

Effects of Cognitive and Metacognitive Pre‐reading Activities on the Reading Comprehension of ESL Learners

Pre‐reading activities such as title discussion and vocabulary training have been shown to be effective in decreasing oral reading errors and increasing reading rate and comprehension across a range of reading levels. Experiment 1 in this paper examines the effects of these cognitive activities in combination on the reading comprehension of three adult ESL emergent readers. Experiment 2 explores the relative effects of this procedure, and a metacognitive strategy for presenting these pre‐reading techniques, on the comprehension levels of five adult ESL learners. Single subject research designs were employed in both studies. Results of both studies indicate that the cognitive strategy was effective in raising comprehension levels. However, in Experiment 2, the metacognitive instructional strategy, while similarly effective in raising comprehension levels, was also associated with enhanced maintenance in a subsequent non‐treatment phase. Implications of these findings for instructional practice with ELS learners, both proficient and novice first language readers, are considered.     

Learning by drawing: When is it worth the time and effort?

Two experiments compared the effects of learning by drawing to studying instructor-provided visuals on learning outcomes, learning time, and cognitive load. College students studied a text on the human circulatory system and completed comprehension and transfer tests. In Experiment 1 (N = 107), students studied the text with provided visuals (provided visuals) or generated their own drawings from the text with text-based support (verbally-supported drawing) or without support (unsupported drawing). Results showed that while the verbally-supported drawing condition spent significantly more time and experienced significantly higher cognitive load than the provided visuals condition, there were no differences across the three conditions in learning outcomes. In Experiment 2 (N = 85), students studied the text with provided visuals (provided visuals) or generated drawings from the text with provided visuals as feedback (visually-supported drawing). Results showed that the visually-supported drawing condition spent significantly more time and experienced significantly higher cognitive load than the provided visuals condition but also performed significantly better than the provided visuals condition on the comprehension test. These findings suggest generating drawings prior to studying provided visuals is worth the time and effort.     

Motivational vulnerability as a challenge for educational interventions

The focus of this study was on the question, `Are there differences among young (third grade) students who are poor learners in their metacognitive (in)competence and motivational vulnerability that are crucial for better self-regulation?’ This question was studied in an intervention context, where an effort was made to mindfully implement teaching methods that have been found to be effective in promoting strategic learning. The subjects were reading comprehension (in environmental science) and mathematical problem solving. The results suggest there is a need for more coordinated, long-term analyses of transactional, strategy-focused instruction that (a) extends over a long period of time, (b) moves from innovative to more conventional settings as students’ cognitive and motivational competence increases, (c) is based on students’ own, personal and meaningful experiences and competencies, and (d) moves from individual to collaborative, shared and multiple transaction. There also is a need to train students in the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, emotional coping, and motivation strategies that promote self-regulation.