Executive Functioning and School Readiness Among Preschoolers With Externalizing Problems: The Moderating Role of the Student–Teacher Relationship

Research Findings: The objective of this study was to examine the student–teacher relationship as a potential moderator of the link between executive functioning (EF) and children’s early school readiness among a clinical sample of preschoolers with externalizing behavior problems (EBP). Participants for the study included 139 preschool children (75.54% boys, M age = 5.01 years, 84.94% Hispanic/Latino) with at-risk or clinically elevated levels of EBP. The student–teacher relationship was assessed using the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale. School readiness data were composed of standardized achievement test scores and teacher reports of kindergarten readiness. EF was measured via parent and teacher reports along with standardized measures of EF, including the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task and 4 standardized subtests from the Automated Working Memory Assessment. Poorer student–teacher relationship quality was predictive of lower teacher-reported kindergarten readiness and higher academic impairment. Main effects were qualified by an interaction between EF and student–teacher relationship quality such that worse EF (parent/teacher reports and standardized performance) was only associated with lower teacher-rated kindergarten readiness for children with poorer student–teacher relationship quality. Practice or Policy: EF appears to be an important predictor of school readiness for preschool children with EBP, particularly for children experiencing poorer student–teacher relationships.     

Temperament and Teacher–Child Conflict in Preschool: The Moderating Roles of Classroom Instructional and Emotional Support

Research Findings: This study is an examination of (a) links between preschool children’s temperament (effortful control, shyness, and anger) and teacher–child conflict and (b) classroom instructional and emotional support as moderators of associations between temperament and teacher–child conflict. Children (N = 104) were enrolled in 23 classrooms in 9 preschools in a midwestern city. Teachers provided ratings of children’s temperament and parents reported demographic information in the fall of the school year, classrooms were observed in the winter to assess instructional and emotional support, and teachers rated conflict with children in the spring. Multilevel models were estimated, and 3 main findings emerged. First, children’s effortful control was negatively associated with their level of conflict with teachers. Second, children’s effortful control was negatively related to teacher–child conflict in classrooms with low emotional support but unrelated to conflict in classrooms with high emotional support. Third, children’s effortful control was negatively related to conflict in classrooms with high instructional support but unrelated to conflict in classrooms with low instructional support. Practice or Policy: Findings highlight the importance of considering the interplay of children’s effortful control and preschool classroom instructional and emotional support in the development of early teacher–child conflict.     

The Preschool Instructional Context and Child–Teacher Relationships

Research Findings: The purpose of this article is to examine how dimensions of the preschool instructional context predict child–teacher relationship quality. A total of 118 low-income, predominantly Latino/a children and their teachers participated in this study. Children were observed in their 1st preschool classroom. Measures of instructional context included the classroom instructional climate and teacher instructional strategies with individual children. Measures of child–teacher relationships included both observed and teacher-perceived child–teacher relationship quality. Our findings suggest that aspects of classroom instructional context do influence child–teacher relationships. Children are more likely to have secure, positive relationships with teachers who are more skilled at setting up appropriate classroom environments and giving children high-quality feedback to stretch their emerging knowledge and skills. Practice or Policy: These data provide preliminary support for the notion that high-quality early education can and should develop children's academic skills in a context that is deeply rooted in positive and supportive social interactions.     

Contributions of Teacher–Child Interaction Quality to Chinese Children’s Development in the Early Childhood Years

Research Findings: Growing international evidence points to high-quality teacher–child interactions in early learning environments as key contributors to children’s learning and development. Little is known, however, about the longitudinal effects of these experiences, particularly in the Chinese context. In this study, we addressed the question of such longitudinal effects by examining the predictive effect of classroom teacher–child interaction quality on children’s subsequent academic development in a sample of 3-year-old children in Chinese kindergartens. Utilizing a hierarchical linear modeling approach, we found that teacher–child interaction quality, especially the classroom organization domain, consistently predicted the development of children’s early academic and cognitive skills. Practice or Policy: Findings contribute to the growing international literature on the critical role teacher–child interaction quality plays in children’s learning and development. Implications for policy and professional development are discussed.     

Examining Associations Between Effortful Control and Teacher–Child Relationships in Relation to Head Start Children's Socioemotional Adjustment

Research Findings: The current project examined the unique and interactive relations of child effortful control and teacher–child relationships to low-income preschoolers' socioemotional adjustment. One hundred and forty Head Start children (77 boys and 63 girls), their parents, lead teachers, and teacher assistants participated in this study. Parents provided information on child effortful control, whereas lead teachers provided information on their relationships with students. Teacher assistants provided information on children's socioemotional adjustment (emotional symptoms, peer problems, conduct problems, prosocial behaviors) in the preschool classroom. Both teacher–child closeness and conflict were significantly related to low-income preschoolers' socioemotional adjustment (i.e., emotional symptoms, peer problems, conduct problems, and prosocial behaviors) in expected directions. In addition, teacher–child conflict was significantly associated with emotional symptoms and peer problems among children with low effortful control; however, teacher–child conflict was not significantly associated with socioemotional difficulties among children with high effortful control. Teacher–child closeness, on the other hand, was associated with fewer socioemotional difficulties regardless of children's level of effortful control. Practice or Policy: Results are discussed in terms of (a) the utility of intervention efforts focusing on promoting positive teacher–child interactions and enhancing child self-regulatory abilities and (b) the implications for children's socioemotional adjustment.     

Teacher–Student Conflict and Preschoolers’ Adjustment in the Transition to Primary School: The Role of Child Self-Regulation and Parents’ Positive Relations With Others

Research Findings: This study examined the contribution of teacher-student conflict at kindergarten to the child’s school adjustment in primary school using a Hong Kong sample. It investigated self-regulation as a mediator and parents’ positive relations with others as a moderator in that transition. At Time 1 (T1), kindergarten teachers reported their levels of conflict with individual children (N = 324, 168 girls), whereas children’s self-regulation was assessed with a Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders Task. Fathers and mothers also rated their positive relations with others. At Time 2 (T2; 8 months later), when children were enrolled in primary school (N = 247, 126 girls), primary school teachers rated how well they adjusted to the new school. Moderated mediation analyses showed that although the direct effect of T1 teacher-student conflict on T2 school adjustment was not significant, the indirect effect of self-regulation was. T1 teacher-student conflicts were negatively related to children’s self-regulation, which in turn predicted subsequent school adjustment. Interestingly, this indirect effect was significant only when parents’ positive relations with others were low rather than high. Practice or Policy: The findings highlight the importance of both a warm and caring relationship in the home and self-regulation to successful school transition.     

Teacher–Child Interactions and the Development of Executive Function in Preschool-Age Children Attending Head Start

Research Findings: The purpose of this study was to examine the potential contribution of teacher–child interactions to residualized Inhibitory Control (IC) gains over approximately a six-month period for preschoolers from predominantly low-income households. The study also explored whether the association between quality of teacher–child interactions and IC gains depends on children’s IC skills upon classroom entry and their household income-to-needs ratio. The study included 169 preschoolers from 51 classrooms in a Head Start program run by an agency in a large city in Oklahoma. Children’s IC skills were assessed in fall (time 1) and spring (time 2), and teacher–child interaction quality was observed at fall (i.e., September through November). Results from Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) did not show significant effects of high-quality teacher–child interactions on residualized IC gains over six months. However, results showed that children who initially presented poor IC skills displayed higher gains in their IC skills at spring when they were in classrooms practicing high-quality teacher–child interactions, as defined by emotional support and classroom organization. Practice or Policy: Emotionally supportive and well-organized classrooms in Head Start programs may benefit early IC development, especially for children presenting poor IC skills at classroom entry.     

Measuring Teacher–Child Relationships in the Greek Kindergarten Setting: A Validity Study of the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale–Short Form

Research Findings: The present study was designed to examine the factorial validity of the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale–Short Form (STRS-SF; R. C. Pianta, 2001 Hamre, B. K. and Pianta, R. C. 2001. Early teacher-child relationships and the trajectory of children's school outcomes through eighth grade.. Child Development, 72: 625–638. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and its invariance across gender in the Greek educational context. The STRS-SF comprises 15 items that measure 2 dimensions of teacher–child relationships: Closeness and Conflict. Fifty-six kindergarten teachers completed the STRS-SF about their students (n = 336). A 2-factor model with correlated latent factors was postulated and tested. Confirmatory factor analysis procedures showed marginal fit to the data (comparative fit index [CFI] = .902, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = .066). The fit of the model was further improved by adding 2 error covariances (CFI = .931, RMSEA = .056). Cronbach's alpha coefficient showed adequate internal consistency for Closeness (α = .72) and Conflict (α = .82). In addition, there was a moderate negative association between the 2 subscales (r = ?.38). Examination of STRS-SF invariance showed that it was manifested in the same way across gender. Practice or Policy: The findings of the present study, which was conducted in a cultural context different from the one in which the STRS-SF was developed, seem to support the instrument's factorial validity and equivalence across gender.     

Associations of Preschool Type and Teacher–Child Relational Quality With Young Children's Social-Emotional Competence

Research Findings: This study examined associations of preschool type (i.e., urban and suburban Head Start and university-affiliated center) and teacher–child variables with positive and negative child outcomes among 145 preschoolers (74 boys). Differences emerged across preschools, with urban Head Start children scoring lowest on the emotional competence measures and university-affiliated preschoolers experiencing less peer victimization than urban and suburban Head Start preschoolers. Differences across preschool types were also found for the teacher–child variables, such that teacher–child closeness was lower and teacher–child conflict and dependence were highest in the urban Head Start preschool. Regression analyses revealed significant and meaningful interactions between preschool type and teacher–child relational quality in the prediction of children's social-emotional outcomes. Teacher–child conflict was negatively associated with emotion regulation and teacher–child dependence was associated with the highest levels of emotion regulation, but only for university-affiliated preschoolers. Suburban Head Start preschoolers experienced less prosocial attention than urban Head Start preschoolers, but only when teacher–child closeness was high. Teacher–child closeness was also a negative predictor of urban Head Start preschoolers’ prosocial attention. Practice or Policy: Results point to the importance of understanding the role of teacher–child relational quality in the social-emotional development of children exposed to different preschool and environmental contexts.     

Preschool Children’s Adjustment Following a Hurricane: Risk and Resilience in the Face of Adversity

Research Findings: It is clear that disasters negatively affect both adults and children. Yet there is little research examining the mechanisms whereby some people are negatively affected by disasters whereas others are resilient to these negative effects. Family functioning and child characteristics might be factors that influence the impact of disasters on young children. We tested this premise in a sample of 118 children living in an area affected by a Category 3 hurricane, with 47 of these children participating before and after the hurricane. Results indicated that disaster experiences and emotion regulation are predictors of adjustment following natural disasters. Findings also suggested that the effects of disaster experiences on children’s adjustment are sometimes indirect through their impact on parental depression and parent hostility. Practice or Policy: These findings indicate that working to minimize the likelihood of parent–child separations during disasters could reduce the negative effects of disasters on children. In addition, promoting better emotional regulatory abilities in young children may help them to be more resilient when experiencing natural disasters, and providing parents with the support they need to more effectively parent may also decrease the likelihood that children will experience adjustment difficulties following disasters.     

Links Among Italian Preschoolers’ Socioemotional Competence,Teacher–Child Relationship Quality,and Peer Acceptance

Research Findings: The purpose of the present study was to examine the relations among teacher–child relationship quality (close, conflictive, and dependent), children's social behavior, and peer likability in a sample of Italian preschool-age children (46 boys, 42 girls). Preschool teachers evaluated the quality of the teacher–child relationship and children's social behaviors (i.e., social competence, anger-aggression, and anxiety-withdrawal). Peer-rated likability was measured using a sociometric procedure. Results indicated that conflictual teacher–child relationships were related to high aggressive behavior, and dependent teacher–child relationships were positively associated with children's anxiety-withdrawal. Moreover, we found an indirect association between close teacher–child relationship quality and peer likability through children's social competence. Practice or Policy: The findings provide evidence that the teacher–child relationship is critical for children's social behaviors and that social competence is uniquely related to peer likability.     

Using a Standardized Task to Assess the Quality of Teacher–Child Dyadic Interactions in Preschool

Research Findings: This study explored the quality of teacher-child interactions within the context of a newly developed standardized task, Teacher-Child Structured Play Task (TC-SPT). A sample of 146 teachers and 345 children participated. Children who displayed the highest disruptive behaviors within each classroom were selected to participate. Teacher-child dyads (n=345) participated in a play session that included free play and clean-up tasks. We adapted two coding schemes to assess the quality of both teachers’ and children’s interactive behaviors during these two tasks. The coding schemes exhibited internal and inter-rater reliability. Significant associations with classroom-level teacher-child interactions and children’s observed classroom engagement provide support for the measure’s validity. Differences in teacher and child-interactive behaviors across the two tasks (free play versus clean-up) suggest that task features may affect the quality of teacher-child interactive behaviors. Practice and Policy: Examining the interactions of different teacher-child dyads within the same standardized context will allow researchers to better understand the child and teacher factors that contribute to the quality of those interactions. Thus, use of this task in future field-based research may help to assess the impact of early interventions and professional development efforts that target improvement in the quality of teacher-child interactions.     

The Validity of Narratives for Understanding Children’s Perceptions of the Teacher–Child Relationship for Preschoolers Who Display Elevated Disruptive Behaviors

The links between a positive teacher-child relationship and young children’s academic and social-emotional development have been well established, particularly for children with disruptive behaviors. However, less is known about children’s views of the teacher-child relationship and how these representations relate to other established measures. Using a sample of 157 preschoolers with elevated disruptive behaviors, the current study assessed preschoolers’ representations of the teacher-child relationship by adapting a narrative procedure and a coding scheme from the parent-child attachment literature. Children’s representations as assessed through their narratives were internally consistent and were modestly associated with established measures of the teacher-child relationship. Offering additional support of validity, children’s representations had implications for their engagement in tasks, such that children with more negative and less emotionally positive representations were more dependent on positive interactions with their teachers to remain oriented to tasks. Results add support to the importance of positive teacher-child interactions for children with behavioral difficulties and highlight the benefit of using representational measures to understand children’s views of the teacher-child relationship.     

Fostering Supportive Teacher–Child Relationships: Intervention Implementation in a State-Funded Preschool Program

Research Findings: Banking Time is a set of techniques designed to promote positive, supportive relationships through 1-on-1 interactions between teachers and children. Web-based training resources were made available to 252 preschool teachers who received different levels of support as a component of a professional development intervention, and the purpose of this study was to examine teachers' implementation of Banking Time. Teachers with greater levels of professional development support were more likely to implement Banking Time with children in their classes. Teachers were more likely to choose to implement Banking Time with children who had lower social-emotional skills (e.g., more problem behaviors). Teachers developed greater relational closeness with children who participated in Banking Time than with children who did not participate. Practice or Policy: The implications of these preliminary findings for fostering supportive teacher–child relationships are discussed.     

Teacher–Child Interactions in Free Choice and Teacher-Directed Activity Settings: Prediction to School Readiness

Research Findings: This article examines whether time spent in free choice and teacher-directed activity settings within preschool was associated with indicators of school readiness and the extent to which children’s learning was associated with the quality of teachers’ behavior within these settings. Participants were 325 preschool teachers and 1,407 children from low-income backgrounds. Teacher–child interactions were measured in multiple cycles across 1 day of classroom observation within teacher-organized free choice and teacher-directed activity settings. The overall proportion of class time spent in free choice was positively related to children’s average gains in inhibitory control, whereas class time spent in teacher-directed activities predicted gains in language development and early literacy skills. And more effective teacher–child interactions within the free choice setting were significantly related to children’s average gains in language development and early literacy skills. Practice or Policy: Findings confirm that both free choice and teacher-directed settings in early education classrooms can be assets for children’s learning; however, the value of time in child-managed activities is partially dependent on teachers’ behavior with children.     

Associations Among Teacher–Child Interactions,Teacher Curriculum Emphases,and Reading Skills in Grade 1

Research Findings: The purpose of the present study was to examine the extent to which the quality of teacher–child interactions and teachers’ self-reported curriculum emphases are related to children’s reading skill development during their 1st school year. To accomplish this, we assessed the reading skills of 1,029 Finnish children (M age = 85.77 months) twice during Grade 1, and the children’s teachers (n = 91) completed questionnaires concerning their literacy-related curriculum emphases. In addition, teacher–child interactions in terms of emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support were observed in 29 classrooms. The results of multilevel modeling showed that a high global quality of teacher–child interactions was positively associated with improved children’s reading skills at the end of Grade 1. In addition, a teacher emphasis on comprehension and production skills was related to better reading skills via teacher–child interactions. Domain-specific analyses revealed that emotional support and classroom organization in particular were related to better reading skills. Practice or Policy: The present study adds to previous research by showing that children had better reading skills at the end of their 1st school year in classrooms in which the teachers were warm, responsive, and sensitive to children’s needs and provided well-planned activities, clear rules, and expectations for behavior.     

Examining the Relationship of Children’s Behavior to Emotion Regulation Ability

This study investigated the relationship between children’s ability to regulate emotions and display of appropriate behavior in social settings. A sample of 33 children representing a wide range of social economic status was randomly selected from a Head Start Program and an Early Childhood Development Center in the Midwest. Data were collected using the Emotion Regulation Checklist (ERC) developed by Shields and Cicchetti (Dev Psychol 33:906–916, 1997, J Clin child Psychol, 27:231–395, 1998). A “Behavior Recording” checklist was developed and used to record appropriate and inappropriate behavior observed during children social interactions. Teacher ratings identified children as generally high emotion regulators. Girls had generally higher scores than boys in emotion regulation ability. A high relationship (r = .76) was also found between emotion regulation and display of appropriate behavior. Results indicate the importance of emotions in relation to a child’s well being and academic achievement. Additionally, these findings suggest a need for parents and early childhood educators to teach children appropriate emotional behavior when confronted with situations that are in conflict with societal norms.     

Social-Emotional Development,School Readiness,Teacher–Child Interactions,and Classroom Environment

This article investigates the effectiveness of a statewide 6-month early childhood mental health consultation (ECMHC) model on teachers’ emotional support of children and classroom organization. We provide a brief historical and theoretical background of the field of ECMHC, present the logic model for our ECMHC intervention, and discuss the existing research that supports this logic model. Research Findings: Participants included 445 teachers from 158 child care centers statewide. The mental health consultation improved the quality of early childhood teachers’ interactions (e.g., emotional support and classroom organization) with children in their care. Teachers with more experience and more than a high school degree tended to score higher on many of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (R. C. Pianta, K. M. La Paro, &; B. K. Hamre, 2008 Pianta , R. C. , La Paro , K. M. , &; Hamre , B. K. ( 2008 ). Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) manual, Pre-K . Baltimore , MD : Brookes . [Google Scholar]) dimensions. Practice or Policy: This study demonstrates that mental health consultants can partner successfully with early childhood educators and provide support that enhances classroom variables associated with high-quality care and positive child outcomes. Even with a high rate of teacher turnover (35%), significant differences were found; this demonstrates the robustness of the ECMHC model in that the effectiveness of this model was not undermined by the chronic problem of staff turnover.     

“I have a Preschool Buddy” Exploring the Role of High School Students in Facilitating the Pre-academic Skills and Social Development of Preschool Children

The purpose of this research is to explore the role of a director of a preschool program who mentors and trains high school students to teach and work directly with preschool children in the context of individual lessons, small group activities, and large group instruction. This participant-observer research study also examines how the director assesses the high school students ability to work effectively with the preschoolers they are assigned to teach and addresses the pre-academic and social learner outcomes for these children in this unique preschool program. Parent feedback pertaining to preschool learning outcomes is also examined.     

Emotional Behavior Problems,Parent Emotion Socialization,and Gender as Determinants of Teacher–Child Closeness

Research Findings: Drawing from a diverse community sample of 89 children, ages 4–6, their primary caregivers and teachers, this study examined the interplay of child emotional behavior problems, parent emotion socialization practices, and gender in predicting teacher-child closeness. Teachers reported on perceptions of closeness with children. Parents and teachers reported on children’s emotional behavior problems, as indexed by overanxious behavior, overt, and relational aggression. Regression models revealed that higher relational aggression related to closer teacher-child relationships for all children of parents who employed minimization as an emotion socialization practice. Similarly, higher overt aggression related to closer teacher-child relationships for girls who experienced parent minimization. An analogous pattern of results emerged, such that lower parent emotional support buffered girls against the negative effects of higher relational aggression on teacher-child closeness, whereas higher parent emotional support related to lower levels of closeness for these girls. These findings contradict prior research linking supportive emotion socialization practices (e.g., empathy, comforting) to socioemotional competence and unsupportive practices (e.g., minimization, punishment) to poor school adjustment. Practice or Policy: Findings have implications for improving children’s classroom experience by identifying parent emotion socialization and gender as contexts for understanding child emotional behavior problems in relation to teacher-child closeness.