Individual differences in children's ability to profit from picture adjunct aids

A paired-associate memory task with pictures and words as items was used to categorize fourth graders into four learner types: HH, high picture-high word; HL, high picture-low word; LH, low picture-high word; LL, low picture-low word. Some children in each classification read prose passages with picture adjunct aids; other children read the passages without adjunct aids. Although free recall for the prose passage yielded inconclusive data, a constructed response test for facts in the prose passages revealed significant Aptitude × Treatment interactions, such that poor paired-associate learners (i.e., LLs) profited more than did good paired-associate learners (i.e., HHs) from picture aids on the prose task. The children's standardized reading scores were positively related to memory performance, but good and poor readers did not differ in their ability to profit from picture aids. It was suggested that less-strategic learners, such as those who perform poorly on paired-associate tasks, are more likely to be helped by externally provided mediational aids, while more-strategic learners are more likely to be helped by instructions to generate their own mediational aids.     

Teacher characteristics and teacher performance

This study investigated effects of seven demographic and psychological characteristics of teachers on their performances during student teaching. Student teachers' performances were examined in relation to their ages, prior student teaching experiences, scholastic aptitudes, attitudes toward teaching, moral reasoning abilities, conceptual levels, and degrees of ego development. Results indicate that student teachers' performances were dependent in a nontrivial way on their ego development and to a much lesser degree on other characteristics.     

Students' reactions after cheating: An attributional analysis

The hypothesis that students who cheat will externalize the cause of this behavior was tested by contrasting the causal inferences of cheating students and noncheating students. The results supported Kelley's attributional model, for cheaters tended to note the high distinctiveness, high consensus, and low consistency of their actions, while noncheaters noted the low distinctiveness, low consensus, and high consistency of their morally commendable actions. Comparison of the students' attributions with inferences formulated by uninvolved observers also indicated that students tended to formulate self-serving attributions, suggesting that external attributions—in providing students with an excuse for cheating—may work to limit self-concept changes after misconduct.     

Locus of control, academic achievement, and Follow Through in Appalachia

The present study explored the development of locus of control in rural Appalachian Follow Through participants and in lower and middle-class comparison groups. The IAR was administered to 249 first-, third-, and sixth-grade children along with standardized achievement tests. Contrary to previous research, participation in Follow Through did not enhance internality; no social class differences were revealed. A significant social class by sex interaction was found. Strong support was not found for a developmental trend. The patterns of correlations between locus of control and achievement indicated a stronger relationship for the lower-class samples rather than for the middle-class as has been previously reported. Implications concerning different developmental antecedents in Appalachian homes as a function of sex-role socialization as well as the nature of future intervention research are discussed.     

Rule learning and complexity in simulated reading

Three approaches (Rule, Higher-order Unit, Whole Word) to decoding in a simulated reading task were studied. Rule complexity was varied in three experiments employing symbols ($, @, etc.) as stimuli and numbers as responses. CAI was the experimental vehicle. The 110 fifth and sixth grade boys and girls from an inner-city school were randomly assigned to one of the 11 groups in the three experiments. When the rule was simple (one-to-one correspondence) the rule approach was superior, but when the rule was complex (simulation of the final e rule in reading) the higher-order unit approach was superior. Higher-order unit subjects studied examples composed of the fewest stimuli possible to illustrate the rule.     

Effects of students' race,physical attractiveness,and dialect on teachers' evaluations

The study was designed to assess the effects of a student's race, dialect, and physical attractiveness on teachers' evaluations. The students were of two races, black and white; three physical attractivenss levels, high, middle, and low; and they spoke one of two dialects, Black English or Standard English. Sixty-eight, white, elementary school teachers listened to each student's response and rated the student in terms of personality, quality of response, and current and future academic abilities. Analysis of the results showed that all main effects and interactions were significant. Generally, black students, Black English-speaking students, and low attractive students were rated lower. The results also revealed that teachers' ratings in the different areas were highly consistent with one another. Discussion centered around the results' implications for determining the cause(s) of black children's failure in school. The results provide some support for attributing these children's academic failures to their race and dialect rather than to their actual performance.     

Contributions of existing knowledge structure to retroactive inhibition in prose learning

This experiment tested the hypothesis that prose materials related to existing knowledge structure will be less subject to retroactive interference (RI) than will materials not as easily related to existing knowledge structure. Subjects read successive passages labeled with the names of famous or fictitious characters. In comparison to control groups, subjects receiving initial passages labeled with fictitious names experienced significant RI, whereas subjects receiving famous name initial passages did not.     

Effect of personalized basal stories on the reading comprehension of fourth-grade poor and average readers

Forty fourth-grade children were assigned randomly on a stratified basis to read either standard or personalized basal stories and answer comprehension questions. The results of the study indicated that children previously identified as poor readers comprehended more information when they read personalized, as opposed to standard, stories. No difference was found among children of average reading ability on this variable.     

On the theory and measurement of reading comprehension

This paper suggests that reading comprehension must involve an interaction between the reader's world knowledge and the incoming linguistic message. We call this the minimal comprehension principle. After examining the measurement of reading comprehension from the perspective of the minimal comprehension principle, we conclude that most existing tests of reading comprehension are likely to be unsatisfactory for the purposes of assessing educational gain and diagnosing reading difficulty. We suggest several techniques which might be more suitable for these purposes.     

The effect of modifying the cognitive tempo of reading disabled children on reading comprehension

The present investigation was concerned with teaching poor readers to use a reflective cognitive style. It was hypothesized that such a strategy would facilitate the reading ability of poor readers. To test this hypothesis, approximately half the poor readers and half the average readers were divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group of children was taught to delay their responses and to use more efficient search and scanning techniques. All groups were tested before and after training on the Matching Familiar Figures test and the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test. Poor readers' vocabulary and comprehension scores and level of reflectivity improved following training. It was concluded that imposing slow reading strategies on impulsive children is an important factor in developing educational programs for children with reading disabilities and that teaching poor readers a reflective cognitive strategy may have important consequences on the child's reading performance.     

Individual differences in memory: Theory,data, and educational implications

This paper examines two theoretical perspectives from which the issue of individual differences in memory can be viewed and relates the perspectives to evidence available in the literature. The paper also reports the results of two studies which bear upon the issue of whether there are individual differences in the retention of learned material. The last section of the paper examines the educational implications of one of the theories presented in the paper.     

Automatic conceptual encoding of printed verbal material: Assessment of population differences

The release from proactive interference task was used to investigate categorical encoding of animal and clothing items with fourth grade low-socioeconomic status black and middle-socioeconomic status white children. The print mode of verbal presentation and an ordered recall requirement were used in order to provide hospitable conditions for the detection of population differences. The results indicated parity in buildup and release from proactive interference for the two populations. The results of this study, consistent with previous estimates of release from proactive interference for these groups (e.g., D. W. Kee & L. Helfend, Journal of Educational Psychology, 1977, 69, 344–348; S. Y. Nakayama & D. W. Kee, Journal of Educational Psychology, 1980, 72, 386–393), indicate that low-socioeconomic status black and middle-socioeconomic white children do not differ in automatic conceptual encoding. Conceptual encoding differences, however, have been detected between these populations when the free recall method has been used. Thus, discussion of the present results includes a consideration of factors which may be responsible for population differences in free recall performance and preliminary evidence on this issue is provided.     

Reconceptualizing perceptual development: The identification of some dimensions of spatial competence in young children

In this examination of young children's acquisition of geometric skills, spatial performances were conceptualized as specific combinations of actions applied within stimulus contexts. Since both actions and context can vary, a number of different combinations can be specified. In this study, the relationships among eight such combinations were examined and predicted patterns compared with observed ones. Fifty-four 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children were presented with 24 geometric displays depicting a variety of geometric relations. Subjects were required to either match or recall the displays in both a reconstruction and a recognition task format thereby responding across different types of action demands. The geometric displays depicted information organized either around a single axis (horizontal or vertical) or around both axes, the variation in context. The results of a mixed design ANOVA revealed a good fit with the hypothesized predictions. The findings are discussed in terms of the development of spatial skills, information theory, and of skill generalization.     

Cheating: The illusory edge

This experiment studied the relationships among cheating, overall test performance, and the relatedness of materials available and unavailable to the cheater. Subjects learned a free-recall list and were then tested for recall either when cheating was impossible or when half of the list had been left “carelessly” exposed. For half of the cheat subjects the exposed and the unexposed words belonged to different categories, while for the remaining halves the items belonged to the same categories. Recall was scored for both exposed and unexposed words. The results indicate that significant cheating did occur, that cheating did not improve overall performance, and that while cheating elevated the numbers of recorded exposed words it depressed recall of stored unexposed items (for both related and unrelated sets). This associated cost effect is discussed in connection with category retrieval, output interference, attention, and arousal.     

Attribution—Affect relationships following classroom performance

Two studies that examine distinct affect—attribution linkages in the context of an actual examination are reported. The results provide partial support for Weiner's model but also suggest that attributions are related to positive affect when the attributions are associated with the potential of satisfactory performance. That is, attributions generate positive affect to the extent that such attributions help ensure good performance.     

Interpretation of the separate WPPSI tests for boys and girls at three age levels

The aim was to aid the clinician's interpretation of the six Verbal and five Performance tests constituting the WPPSI. Analyses were conducted for separate groups of boys and girls at ages $\text{4?4}\text{1}\text{2}$, $\text{5?5}\text{1}\text{2}$, and $\text{6?6}\text{1}\text{2}$ to determine the amount of specificity (reliable unique variance) for each test. Test specificity provides empirical evidence either for or against interpreting the specific traits or abilities that are presumed to be measured by a particular test. Most WPPSI tests were found to have enough specificity to warrant specific clinical interpretation for boys and girls across the age range. The clinical implications of the results are discussed.