Socialising principals: early career primary school principals in Trinidad and Tobago

This paper utilises an interpretivist framework and recent developments in practice theory to examine the conditions which influence practices of socialising into the role of school principal in Trinidad and Tobago. The results indicate that for the 11 early career primary school principals, role socialisation occurs within complex practice landscapes, where the practices of preparing classroom teachers for the principalship materialise within a context of contest. There is conflict between historical antecedents and the expectations and practices of socialising institutions such as the church, the school, the community and the Ministry of Education. This small-scale study has implications for leadership preparation practices and highlights principal socialisation as a challenge of context and history.     

Denominational primary schooling: The case of Trinidad and Tobago

In developing countries, the trend has been for government to assume gradual control of schools run by religious organisations, while allowing them to retain their religious affiliation. In the Caribbean, the relationship between church and state educational systems has generally been cordial. This is particularly so in Trinidad and Tobago, where almost three quarters of the primary schools are denominational: Roman Catholic, other Christian, Hindu and Muslim. However, a significant proportion of pupils do not adhere to the host faith. Demographic trends and internal migration have disturbed the previous pattern of population, but the most important factor is the influence of the Common Entrance Examination, which controls entry to secondary education. Certain primary schools achieve high pass rates and attract large numbers of applicants from all sectors of society, while School Boards and principals accept over-population and set entry criteria other than religious affiliation. Variation in curricula is limited by recently drafted requirements, the government provides the bulk of school funds, and regularly inspects all schools. Such controls may enable the present government to fulfil its intention of deemphasising the Common Entrance Examination, but it thereby runs the risk of endangering the religious tolerance engendered by the present multidenominational nature of religious schools.

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Zusammenfassung In Entwicklungsländern ging das Bestreben der Regierung dahin, allmählich die Kontrolle über die von religiösen Organisationen geführten Schulen zu übernehmen und ihnen dabei ihre religiöse Bindung zu belassen. In der Karibik bestand bisher im allgemeinen ein herzliches Verhätnis zwischen Kirche und staatlichen Erziehungseinrichtungen. Dies gilt besonders für Trinidad und Tobago, wo fast drei Viertel der Grundschulen Konfessionsschulen sind: römisch-katholisch, anderweitig christlich, hinduistisch und moslemisch. Eine große Anzahl von Schülern gehört allerdings nicht der Glaubensrichtung der Schule an. Demografische Trends und Bevölkerungsfluktuation haben frühere Bevölkerungsmuster verändert, aber der wichtigste Punkt ist der Einfluß der allgemeinen Aufnahmeprüfung, die den Eintritt in die weiterführenden Schulen reguliert.Einige Grundschulen haben hohe Erfolgsraten und ziehen dadurch viele Bewerber aus allen Gesellschaftsschichten an, wobei Schulbehörden und Schulleiter eine Überbelegung akzeptieren und andere Aufnahmekriterien als religiöse Zugehörigkeit festsetzen. Änderungsmöglichkeiten im Curriculum sind durch kürzlich herausgegebene Anforderungsrichtlinien eingeschränkt; die Regierung zahlt den größten Teil der Schulmittel und inspiziert regelmäßig alle Schulen. Diese Kontrollen mögen es zwar der gegenwärtigen Regierung ermöglichen, ihre Absicht, die Bedeutung der allgemeinen Aufnahmeprüfung zu schwächen, zu verwirklichen, aber sie riskiert gleichzeitig, die durch die gegenwärtigen multikonfessionellen Religionsschulen ausgelöste religiöse Toleranz zu gefährden.

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Résumé Dans les pays en développement, le gouvernement assume habituellement le contrôle continu des écoles régies par les organisations religieuses, tout en leur permettant de conserver leur adhésion religieuse. Aux Caraïbes, la relation entre les systèmes éducatifs publics et religieux est généralement cordiale. C'est particulièrement le cas à Trinité-et-Tobago, où presque les trois quarts des écoles primaires sont des écoles confessionnelles: catholiques romaines, diverses écoles chrétiennes, écoles hindoues et musulmanes. Cependant, un nombre important d'élèves n'adhère pas à la religion de l'école. Les tendances démographiques et la migration interne ont changé l'ancienne structure de la population, mais le facteur majeur reste l'influence de l'Examen général d'entrée, qui réglemente l'entrée dans le secondaire. Certaines écoles primaires ont un taux de réussite élevé et attirent de nombreux candidats issus de tous les secteurs de la société, tandis que les conseils et les directeurs d'écoles acceptent une surpopulation et fixent d'autres critères d'admission que ceux d'appartenance religieuse. La diversité des programmes d'études est limitée par des contraintes mises en place récemment, le gouvernement octroie l'ensemble des crédits à l'éducation et inspecte régulièrement tous les établissements scolaires. Pareils contrôles peuvent permettre au présent gouvernement d'imposer sa volonté pour diminuer l'importance de l'Examen général d'entrée, mails ils risquent en même temps de mettre en danger la tolérance religieuse engendrée aujourd'hui par la nature multiconfessionnelle des écoles religieuses.

     

Towards a model for research on the effects of school organizational health factors on primary school performance in Trinidad & Tobago

This article presents a model for research on the effects of school organizational heath factors on primary school academic achievement in Trinidad and Tobago. The model can be applicable for evaluating schools in other developing countries. As proposed, the model hypothesizes relationships between external factors (exogenous variables), school-level factors (endogenous variables), and school outcomes (student achievement and positive school climate). The endogenous variables are sub-scales of school organizational health. They include principal leadership, psycho-social environment, school–home–community relationships, teacher characteristics, curriculum quality, and school culture. These subscales are partially influenced by the Organizational Health Inventory OHI (Hoy and Feldman, 1987) and by school health indices set forth by the World Health Organization (1996). It is hoped that this school organizational health model can provide a conceptual tool for formulating a more comprehensive measure of healthy schools.     

Which males or females are most at risk and on what? An analysis of gender differentials within the primary school system of Trinidad and Tobago

This paper reviews the work on gendered achievement in the English‐speaking Caribbean, with its often explicit focus on underachieving males. However, patterns of gendered achievement are more likely region‐specific and variegated in some contexts. In Trinidad and Tobago, the full‐scale implementation of national assessments in 2004 provided an opportunity to evaluate mathematics and language performance across the entire pupil population at standards 1 (7‐ to 8‐year‐olds) and 3 (9‐ to 10‐year‐olds). Census data from the high‐stakes 2003 Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA) administered at standard 5 (ages: 10–11+) were also included in the analysis. Therefore the entire dataset consisted of 52,284 primary school students (26,574 males and 25,710 females). The findings confirmed that female pupils had a statistically significant advantage on all assessments. However, in terms of practical significance, most differentials were negligible to small. Medium‐sized differentials were obtained for pupils of low ability, living in rural educational districts, and on language arts. Male achievement scores were also more variable for lower grade levels, low ability groups and language arts. Paradoxically, in some educational districts secondary school placement opportunities still favoured males. These variegated patterns of gendered achievement may be associated with differences in institutional effectiveness and variations in male socialization practices that are especially evident across the urban–rural divide.     

The promise and reality of formative assessment practice in a continuous assessment scheme: the case of Trinidad and Tobago

Continuous Assessment (CA) systems are externally directed, curriculum-based assessment schemes used for both summative and formative purposes within classrooms. CA has been implemented as national policy in several postcolonial developing countries and is believed to hold great promise for improving education outcomes. This theory-driven evaluation (TDE) used a mixed methods research design to interrogate the nature of CA practice. The focus was on stakeholders’ understanding and practice of formative assessment in the CA Programme (CAP) of Trinidad and Tobago. The integrated findings suggest that the programme planners’ formative intent was often not fulfilled. Instead, teachers routinely recorded assessment marks without using the data. There is evidence that formative assessment practice was not congruent with teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and practices. Although the design of CA schemes suggests the possibility of synergy between formative and summative purposes, in reality this ideal is rarely achieved in these particular contexts.     

Installing a System of Performance Standards for National Assessments in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago: Issues and Challenges

This article explores the challenge of setting performance standards in a non-Western context. The study is centered on standard-setting practice in the national learning assessments of Trinidad and Tobago. Quantitative and qualitative data from annual evaluations between 2005 and 2009 were compiled, analyzed, and deconstructed. In the mixed methods research design, data were integrated under an evaluation framework for validating performance standards. The quantitative data included panelists’ judgments across standard-setting rounds and methods. The qualitative data included both retrospective comments from open-ended surveys and real-time data from reflective diaries. Findings for procedural and internal validity were mixed, but the evidence for external validity suggested that the final outcomes were reasonable and defensible. Nevertheless, the real-time qualitative data from the reflective diaries highlighted several cognitive challenges experienced by panelists that may have impinged on procedural and internal validity. Additional unique hindrances were lack of resources and wide variation in achievement scores. Ensuring a sustainable system of performance standards requires attention to these deficits.     

Community engagement in the implementation of educational policy in Trinidad and Tobago

Inauguration of double-shift junior secondary schooling in Trinidad and Tobago in 1973 created several problems for local planners, policy makers, parents, and students themselves. In some cases solution has been found, but in others problems have remained defiant and irresolute. In the latter category is the problem of deviant student behaviour during off-shift sessions, believed to be the result of poor student choice regarding the use of time. Recommendations have been made to redress this situation through engagement of community groups. This paper argues that this approach is problematical and contradictory and will not achieve stipulated objectives. The main reason for the gloomy outlook is the principle of decentralization, which must be taken into account in any attempt to engage the local community. Community engagement is examined against certain imperatives of decentralization. The paper concludes, however, that as a strategy, community engagement is doomed to failure. Poor choices by junior secondary school students in the use of their off-shift hours are therefore very likely to persist.     

The role of educational choice in occupational gender segregation: Evidence from Trinidad and Tobago

We analyse the role of educational choice on the degree of occupational segregation in Trinidad and Tobago during a period in which educational policies intent on equating gender opportunities in education were implemented. To this end we utilize waves of the Trinidad and Tobago labour force survey over the period 1991–2004. Our results show that while educational segregation has fallen substantially over our sample period, this has not translated into less occupational segregation. This suggests that the educational policy has not been sufficient to combat occupational segregation. However, results at a more disaggregated level show that experiences have been heterogeneous across educational and occupational groups.     

The development of achievement emotions and coping/emotion regulation from primary to secondary school

This study reports on the development of achievement emotions and coping/emotion regulation in primary to secondary school-aged children and adolescents. Based on two longitudinal cohorts (Grades 2–5; Grades 4–7), latent growth models were used to analyze the development of achievement emotions and coping strategies separately as well as simultaneously. The results show that enjoyment decreases across grades, whereas boredom increases, with substantial changes between Grade 5 and Grade 7. Consistently, the development of enjoyment is positively associated with the development of problem-focused coping and palliative emotion regulation, whereas the development of boredom is positively associated with the development of avoidant coping and anger-related emotion regulation. Moreover, the relation between problem-focused coping and boredom, as well as between avoidant coping and enjoyment, depends on the age group. The results are discussed regarding the organization of learning environments in classes to prevent unfavorable developmental patterns of achievement emotions.     

Learning to teach primary geography in the context of school placement: lessons from an all-Ireland study

Teaching education is Ireland is currently undergoing significant structural and conceptual changes. School placement is at the centre of these reforms. This article reports the findings of an all-Ireland study which investigates student teachers’ experiences of teaching geography during their school placements. Based on data collected from surveys and focus group interviews with one cohort of B.Ed. students, this study illustrates the emotional journey of school placement, emerging identities as teacher, the positive impact of initial teacher education, the problematic nature of messages from ‘third parties’ and conflicting conceptualisations of geography. The findings of this study are important for student teachers and teacher educators as they illustrate the complexity of school placement and the importance of emotional as well as cognitive engagement.     

Study of factors preventing children from enrolment in primary school in the Republic of Honduras: analysis using structural equation modelling

Studies have investigated factors that impede enrolment in Honduras. However, they have not analysed individual factors as a whole or identified the relationships among them. This study used longitudinal data for 1971 children who entered primary schools from 1986 to 2000, and employed structural equation modelling to examine the factors themselves as well as the relationships between their components and educational attainment. Findings indicate that reduced educational attainment is not necessarily the result of repetition or dropout. Low educational attainment occurs due to impediments in access to school, absenteeism, or overage, as this leads to a child suddenly leaving school.     

Academic achievement,pupil participation and integration of group work skills in secondary school classrooms in Trinidad and Barbados

Studies have shown a positive relationship between a rise in schooling levels and economic production [World Bank, 2005. A Time to Choose: Caribbean Development in the 21st Century. World Bank, Washington, DC; Jules, V., Panneflek, A., 2000. EFA in the Caribbean: Assessment 2000, Sub-Regional Report, vol. 2, The State of Education in the Caribbean in the 1990s. UNESCO, Kingston, Jamaica; Haddad, W.D., 1990. Education and Development; Evidence for New Priorities. World Bank Discussion Paper 95. The World Bank, Washington, DC; McClelland, D., 1969. Does Education Accelerate Economic Growth. In: Eckstein, M.A., Noah, H.J. (Eds.), Scientific Investigations in Comparative Education. Macmillan, London], but this link may be limited in systems of education where traditional pedagogic methods have been dominant (such as the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Barbados where underachievement is also associated with lack of participation and low levels of social inclusion skills by teachers: World Bank, 1992. Access, Quality and Efficiency in Caribbean Education: a Regional Study. World Bank, Washington, DC; Kutnick, P., Jules, V., Layne, A., 1997. Gender and School Achievement in the Caribbean. Department for International Development, London). Into traditional classroom contexts in Trinidad and Barbados, a new social pedagogic method was introduced by teachers and changes in attainment and motivation of pupils and attitudes of teachers were assessed over two terms in secondary schools.     

Using electronic technology in the dynamic testing of young primary school children: predicting school achievement

Educational technology research and development - This study aimed to combine the use of electronic technology and dynamic testing to overcome the limitations of conventional static testing, and...     

Parental influences on primary school children's mathematics achievement: insights from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children

Results from international mathematics tests are focussing the attention of national leaders on the learning of mathematics in the primary years. With this attention, comes the need to explore the factors that contribute to and impede this learning. Though much of this focus is on classroom practices, it is timely to examine the important influence that parents have on their children's achievement. This paper reports on a secondary analysis of data from a large longitudinal study in Australia; in particular, the effectiveness of Australian parents’ involvement in their children's homework. The results suggest that the actual help with homework has, on average, a negative effect on children's achievement even after controlling for earlier achievement. Significantly, however, the other types of involvement, such as provision of a good home environment, have positive effects on achievement. The implications of these findings are also discussed.     

A new and different space in the primary school: single‐gendered classes in coeducational schools

This paper derives from a two‐year ethnographic study conducted in single‐gendered classes in two Tasmanian government coeducational schools in socio‐economically disadvantaged areas. These schools specifically adopted proactive strategies to address the educational disengagement of boys whose social behaviour affected their own education and that of many others in the schools—an example of the situation currently described in Australian and international studies as an educational crisis. The unquestioned status of the coeducational primary school classroom is challenged and a theorized alternative is explained.     

The association between homework and primary school children's academic achievement. International evidence from PIRLS and TIMSS

The association between time devoted to homework and children's academic achievement has long been an issue of great debate. A small number of mainly correlational studies have been conducted into this issue in a primary school setting, but have produced somewhat mixed results. In this paper we contribute to this literature by investigating the relationship between time spent upon homework and children's outcomes across 24 countries. By using a student fixed-effects approach, capturing differences in homework time amongst the same student across different school subjects, we argue that our results are likely to be subject to less confounding than much of the existing literature. We find little evidence that the amount of homework time primary school children are assigned is related to their academic achievement. This holds true across a large number of countries, survives various robustness tests and does not vary by gender or socio-economic status. We interpret this finding as suggesting that the homework assigned to primary school pupils may not be adequate to produce a positive association, and needs be improved if this time-consuming activity is ever going to bring benefits for children's academic achievement.     

Evolving data use policy in Trinidad and Tobago: the search for actionable knowledge on educational improvement in a small island developing state

This paper presents a single-country case study of the use of large scale assessment (LSA) data to generate actionable knowledge at school and system levels. Actionable knowledge is data-informed insight into school and system processes that can be used to direct corrective action. The analysis is framed from the perspective of the country’s evolving national policy on data use for educational improvement between 1990 and 2013. Trinidad and Tobago first participated in international large scale assessments (ILSAs) in 1991 but also developed a centralized system of national large scale assessments (NLSAs) in 2004. Analyses of both datasets consistently pointed to low quality and high inequality as the main actionable issues in the education system. NLSA data also hinted at notable variation in performance across schools and education districts. Analyses for and of policy point to the need for multiple school performance measures to better inform site-based, formative action. Over the period, actionable knowledge appears to have had greater impact at school level, with evidence being used by some low-performing schools to improve. However, at the system level, the frequent non-use and misuse of actionable knowledge suggest the need to promote and strengthen structures and processes related to evidence-informed policy-making.     

The development of achievement strategies and academic skills during the first year of primary school

The aim of the study was to investigate whether children's achievement strategies would predict the development of their reading and mathematical skills during the first school year, or whether it is rather these skills that predict the changes in their achievement strategies. One-hundred and five 6- to 7-year-old children were examined three times during their first year of primary school: in each measurement, their self-reported achievement strategies were assessed, and their reading and mathematical skills were rated by their classroom teacher. Their overall cognitive competence was also measured before entry into school. The results showed that the use of maladaptive achievement strategies hampered the children's subsequent improvement in reading and mathematical skills. By contrast, children's skills did not have any impact on their subsequent use of achievement strategies.     

Academic development through the contextualization of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning: reflections drawn from the recent history of Trinidad and Tobago

Whilst the case for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) has been made, there has been little discussion on how such scholarship might lead academic development at the local level. Through analyzing the recent history of Trinidad and Tobago this paper proposes that the conceptualization of SoTL should embrace the nuances of its particular context. It is argued that, since gaining independence, the education system of Trinidad and Tobago has failed to shake off the remnants of its former colonizer and that the Ministry of Education has looked to import educational ‘best practice’ from other countries. This paper suggests that ‘borrowing’ the drivers of development is culturally naïve and, instead, proposes that educational change should be led through a context-specific examination of the relationship between scholars of teaching and learning and the society in which they find themselves.