Impacts of the universal primary education policy on educational attainment and private costs in rural Uganda

While some governments in Sub-Saharan Africa have abolished tuition to achieve universal primary education (UPE), few studies have examined the impacts of the UPE policy beyond school enrolment. This study estimates the impact of the UPE policy in Uganda on overall primary education attainments by using data including 940 rural households. We find that UPE has decreased delayed enrolments and increased grade completion rates up to the fifth grade and its effects are especially large among girls in poor households. Yet, schools in Uganda still face further challenges in terms of low internal efficiency and the unequal quality of education.     

The political economy of attaining Universal Primary Education in sub-Saharan Africa: Social class reproduction,educational distancing and job competition

This is the first of two articles on the political economy of attaining Universal Primary Education (UPE) (in sub-Saharan Africa. It explores three key sets of factors which are powerfully influencing the degree to which the UPE goal is likely to be attained in SSA. These are the rapid emergence of new social class relations which are closely related to key educational developments in many countries, (in particular the rapid growth of higher education and private schooling provision) and the overall demand for primary education and especially the intensifying competition for jobs in the formal sector. This provides the essential contextual background for the second paper which draws on political settlement analysis to explore the politics of UPE in SSA and, in particular, the level of elite political commitment for the attainment of UPE.     

Financial reform of basic education in China

Since the early 1980s, the financing of basic education in China has moved rapidly away from a centralized system with a narrow revenue base to a decentralized system with a diversified revenue base. This paper provides a critical assessment of the impacts of the financial reform of basic education in China, focusing on issues of structure, resource mobilization, inequality, and inefficiency. It concludes that while the reform has been successful in achieving the objectives of structural change and mobilization of additional government and non-government resources, the current system is marked by notable weaknesses in terms of glaring inequalities and significant inefficiencies. Further improvements of the financing system require interventions both inside and outside the education sector.     

Structural Adjustment and Gender Access to Education in Nigeria

ABSTRACT The article reports on relative gender access to secondary (grammar) school education from 1977 to 1990 in Imo State, Nigeria. To this end, time series data on secondary (grammar) school enrolment in Imo State from 1977/78 to 1989/90 were analysed. The findings are: (i) the existence of a gender imbalance in access to grammar school education in which the participation rate for girls was less than 40% up to 1980/81. This is discussed with reference to the prevalence of a gender-biased tradition which restricts girls' access to education; (ii) the dramatic overturning of the gender enrolment imbalance, in favour of girls, from 1981/82 when girls' participation rate in secondary education reached a peak of 56%. This is attributed to the nationwide implementation of a 6-year programme of free and compulsory Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Nigeria from 1976. The free and compulsory UPE scheme (which removed the traditional constraints on female education)had the immediateeffect of causing a phenomenal growth in primary school enrolment that was paralleled in the secondary sector in 1981/82; and (iii) the decline in access to grammar school education, more marked for girls than for boys, since 1986 when free market reform structural adjustment policies (SAP) prescribed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank were introduced in Nigeria. The SAP was accompanied by enormous financial and economic hardship which militate against access to education for the majority of poor Nigerians and for girls in particular. These findings are consistent with reported findings elsewhere in 'adjusting' countries. It is concluded that the financial rigours of the structural adjustments that havebeen imposed on such countries militate against the United Nations Children's Fund and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation commitments to the elimination of all policies that hinder gender access to education in Africa and the global vision of education for all by the year 2000.     

Attention to menstrual hygiene management in schools: An analysis of education policy documents in low- and middle-income countries

Recent decades have seen a push for gender parity in education in low resource countries. Attention is shifting to how school environments hinder the achievement of gender equality. One effort, primarily led by the water, sanitation and hygiene sector, includes a focus on the needs of menstruating girls. This policy review aims to understand how the education sector is addressing menstruation management. We conducted an analysis of select education policy documents in 21 countries, including a frequency count and narrative analysis of relevant keywords. Findings suggest that existing national education policies inadequately provide for sufficient water and sanitation facilities or other menstruation-related improvements needed in schools. More recently developed WASH in schools policies present examples of potential approaches for education stakeholders to better address girls’ menstrual needs in school through policy and program responses.     

The emergence of a market-driven funding mechanism in K-12 education in British Columbia: creeping privatization and the eclipse of equity

Since 2002, British Columbia’s education system has undergone extensive change following amendments to the BC School Act (Bill 34). This article presents a critical analysis of policy changes to the K-12 education finance system, particularly the expansion of the legal capacity of school districts to create ‘school district business companies,’ a phenomenon that is unique within Canada. These companies enable public school districts to establish for-profit companies that operate at arm’s length from the school board, yet generate revenue from private sources to supplement government operational grants. This shift occurred in parallel with fiscal restraint measures that centralized control over the level of government funding while downloading inflationary and new costs to school boards. The result has been structural funding shortfalls for school districts across the province. Structural funding shortfalls, coupled with a push toward market-driven revenue generation, signaled to school districts that they needed to become more financially self-reliant. The authors argue that efficiency and adequacy (defined in financial terms) have eclipsed equity as priority values in BC education, and that ‘creeping privatization’ is undermining public support of public education. For the most part, these substantive changes have failed to stimulate a mass public outcry, and organized resistance comes from public sector unions.     

私立高等教育的公共性

本文重点分析了私立大学的公共控制问题和私立机构利用公共资源的问题。私立学院和大学将政府提供的资助转换为学费,取得空前的繁荣。不同私立大学在市场化机制下的行为方式是不同的,优秀私立大学带动了学费水平的不断提高。营利性大学是美国高等教育领域中发展最快的一部分。成功商业模式的复制和学生资助政策,是营利性大学快速发展的两个关键因素。私立大学的出现也带来了教育质量等一系列问题。新的政策走向似乎更有利于营利性大学,使之有可能获得更多的公共资源。     

地方财政预算管理中的问题与对策

实行分税制财税体制后 ,地方财政预算管理在实践中存在着一些问题 ,如预算编制和预算执行中的计划与征收脱节、定性指标和目标性定量支出过多过滥、地区财政收入紧张、资金使用效率低等问题 .对此作者从实际工作出发 ,提出了改进预算编制、规范预算执行等切实可行的对策 .     

医药制造业及相关上市公司近期运行情况分析

卫生总费用的逐年增长,重要政策的陆续出台,为医药制造行业的发展奠定了坚实的基础。2011年初至今,医药制造行业整体营业收入保持增长而毛利率持续下降。从上市公司情况来看,作为抗通胀性和抗风险性比较强的板块,医药制造行业却走出了弱于大盘的表现。多种因素推动医药制造行业发展,但面临的多重压力仍不容忽视。     

To profit or not to profit: the private higher education sector in Brazil

Brazil has by far the largest higher education system in Latin America, with a sizable share of students enrolled in private-sector institutions. Its recently established and fast-growing for-profit sector is one of the largest worldwide. The for-profit sector already surpasses the public sector in student enrollment, and its role is growing. Public policy has supported for-profit growth, ostensibly for tax revenue reasons, but the federal government has recently launched social initiatives that include tax exemption policies for the for-profit sector in exchange for need-based scholarships. Through exploratory data analysis, this study explores the role, function, and form of the for-profit sector compared with its nonprofit and public counterparts. The findings reveal that the for-profit sector shares some important characteristics with the nonprofit sector but contrasts sharply with the public sector. The study concludes that countries such as Brazil are moving toward public funding for private higher education to meet enrollment targets. These findings may be able to address issues in other countries by considering similar public policies toward private higher education.     

The political economy of attaining Universal Primary Education in sub-Saharan Africa: The politics of UPE implementation

This is the second article of a two-article review which examines how key aspects of the dominant political economy in sub-Saharan Africa are influencing the implementation of the policy of Universal Primary Education (UPE). The first article analyses three sets of factors namely new social class relations, new forms of educational competition and distancing and intensifying competition for formal sector jobs. This provides the essential contextual background for this second article which draws on political settlement analysis to explore the politics of the implementation UPE and, in particular, the level of elite political commitment to the attainment of UPE.     

The quality of learning in Nigerian primary education

The speed with which UPE was introduced to Nigeria has meant enormous problems of both a logistical and educational nature. After six years many have proved all but impossible to overcome. While generalising may be wrong, it is questionable whether the government's objectives for UPE can be achieved. Vast regional discrepancies of implementation have meant that the reduction in the previous imblance of opportunity is unlikely. A high rate of unemployment and disaffection among terminal primary leavers will offset the concept of UPE as an investment. Grassroots support will weaken if primary schooling offers no tangible returns. A further problem is present. The curriculum of UPE has been inappropriate for a system which is terminal for the majority. Basic skills are often unlearned. The national curriculum has not been sufficiently localised and, with staff and material shortages, has been impossible to teach. In current conditions it is academic and certificate-orientated. There is an urgent need to review the structure of primary education before it is too late. A community base might be considered in the face of weakening government funding but the redesign of the curriculum is an essential prerequisite. The content and quality of education is as important as the logistics of its provision.     

Education sector reform: The Ugandan experience

In 1998 the Government of Uganda (GoU) began implementing an ambitious reform programme called the Education Strategic Investment Plan (ESIP) in order to effect Universal Primary Education (UPE). This paper offers a perspective on how the GoU has met the challenge of financing education reform, addressed the need to improve the quality of basic education and increased access and equity while improving efficiency at primary and post-primary levels of education. The development model described in this paper privileges good governance and donor co-operation within a Sector Wide Approach. Important lessons have been learned in Uganda including the need for political commitment to universal primary education within a clear conception of whole sector reform. However, the discourse of SWAPs tends to function primarily in the formal sphere and not at the level of the experience of most teachers, pupils and their families, yet it is at this level that national education policies have to be mediated in practice. More attention needs to be given in education sector reform to the processes as well as the context of change.     

The arithmetic of achieving universal primary education

In spite of an enrolment growth during the past two decades unparalleled in history, the battle to reach universal primary education (UPE) is still far from won for most developing countries (DC). High population growth and persistent high levels of repetition and drop-out contribute to the elusiveness of this target. About half the 142% primary school enrolment increase achieved between 1960 and 1980 was required just to keep pace with population growth. Repetition consumes about 15% of the DC's primary school capacity and about 40% of those starting Grade 1 drop out prior to Grade 4. Net of repetition, the DC had in 1980 an enrolment capacity corresponding to about 3/4 of their children of primary school age. While the capacity for new admission almost equalled the size of the population of admission age, because of high drop-out and repetition, the number of non-repeaters enrolled in the final grade of the cycle was only about half that of the corresponding population age-group. Maintaining present levels of repetition, the DC would have to more than double their 1980 enrolment to attain UPE by the year 2000. Therefore, in view of the present economic crisis, it is likely that many DC will enter the 21st century without having reached this target.     

State Spending on Higher Education Capital Outlays

This paper explores the role that state spending on higher education capital outlays plays in state budgets by considering the functional form of the relationship between state spending on higher education capital outlays and four types of state expenditures. Three possible functional forms are tested: a linear model, a quadratic model, and the balance wheel model. The balance wheel model posits that in good economic times, higher education is funded at a higher rate than other state budget categories. In bad economic times, higher education is often one of the first state budget categories to be cut and is cut more deeply than other state budget categories due, in part, to its ability to tap into alternative revenue streams. We find that capital outlays do not conform to the balance wheel model. Instead they appear to have a quadratic relationship with other state budget categories. We discuss the policy implications of these findings for both higher education leaders and state policymakers.     

浅谈电信行业国有资本经营预算机制的构建

国有资本经营预算,就是国有资本在一个财政年度内的收支计划,是国家以国有资产所有者身份取得的收入和国家用于国有资本经营支出的预算。本文以电信业为例,分析了我国实施国有资本预算的必要性,阐述了实施国有资本预算管理的内容和注意事项,并提出全面推行国有资本经营预算管理的建议。     

我国中等职业教育经费投入分析

为了解我国中等职业教育整体的经费投入情况,需要对中等职业四类学校总体经费进行研究.通过对2000-2006年经费统计数据的分析,发现我国中等职业教育的总经费在2002年以后增加较快.2006年中等职业教育总经费、财政性经费、预算内经费均保持两位数的增速,增加的幅度超过以往各年.2000-2006年期间,非财政性经费的总量持续增加,2006年他们占总经费的比例出现了不同程度的下降.目前,中等职业教育经费投入还没有达到"三个增长"的要求,预算内教育经费占全国财政支出的比例在逐年下降.为此,提出了一些建议.     

Strategies for Elevating the Public and Professional Regard of the Ed.D.

A nationwide strategy for improving Ed.D. programs is needed to overcome two important dilemmas that are typical in schools of education: low academic status for Ed.D. programs and an overreliance on tuition as a source of revenue. Other major hindrances are the lack of agreement about research-based standards, a weak alignment with other elements of educational reform, and fuzzy accreditation standards. The authors then discuss two broad strategies for reversing the downward spiral in educational leadership programs: a compact among elite schools of education to improve their Ed.D. programs and a National Academy of Educational Leadership. For both strategies, the authors explore lessons from a range of analogies drawn frome experience both in the United States and internationally.     

Constraints to UPE: More than a question of supply?

The traditional approach to universal primary education (UPE) in developing countries has emphasised supply factors of schooling systems, such as the construction of schools and teacher training facilities, revisions to curricula and improvements in teaching materials. No doubt all these factors have played an important part in encouraging the growth of enrolment ratios throughout the developing world during the past two decades. But the profile of absentees from school, and the disproportionate enrolment of boys and girls in school suggest that this approach is unlikely to achieve full UPE. This paper calls for consideration of demand factors which may prevent children from attending school. Focusing on the household as the relevant unit, it examines the costs incurred when a child attends school in the developing world, and the benefits to be gained from school attendance. The paper then goes on to consider the case of Botswana, where, within the context of the goal of UPE, the government is investing vast resources in the expansion and improvement of the primary school system. Yet substantial numbers of children, boys in particular, continue to be withheld from school. After an analysis of the demand factors which prevent children from attending school in rural Botswana, the paper concludes with a discussion of the additional policies the Botswana government might find necessary to employ in order to achieve full UPE.     

印度高等教育的质量、创新和公平增长

为迎接知识社会的到来和挑战,加强国际竞争,印度从基础设施建设、教学、科研、教师及质量评估和认证等方面提高高等教育质量,培养创新人才,实施了"具有卓越潜力的大学"、教师进修和本科生职业性课程等计划。在高等教育"十一五"规划中,印度又提出促进高等教育公平增长的思想来引导本国的高等教育发展。