学生创新和实践能力考核在大学招生中的价值：美国“彩虹项目”的启示

“彩虹项目”是由美国大学委员会资助的大学招生研究项目,其目的是探索研究大学招生中考核学生创新和实践能力的必要性。研究结果表明测评这两项能力在大学招生中具有极其重要的意义和价值。增加这项评价有利于对申请学生的能力进行更加全面的考核,不仅可以提高对大学GPA的预测效度,而且可以削减由于弱势群体和其他学生在大学入学标准考试中的不同表现所造成的招生偏差,使招生更具有卓越性和公平性。本文扼要介绍和阐述“彩虹项目”研究的理论基础、考核创新和实践能力的内容、考试结果对大学GPA的预测效度以及在美国塔夫茨大学的实践经验。     

从美国的数学能力倾向测验看我国考试制度的改革

所谓“能力性向测验”就是“标准化能力测验”。在美国,各种各样的能力测验五花八门,其中影响最大、信誉最高的当推SAT(Scholastic Aptitude Test)测验。这是由美国“大学入学考试委员会”(The College Entrance Examination Board)为16—18岁的高中毕业生设计编制的一种标准化能力测验,其成绩是大学招生办公室用于评估学生学习发展趋势的有用依     

加拿大高校招生考试制度的演进历程

加拿大的高校招生考试制度在漫长的历史发展中几经变迁,17世纪到19世纪的大学属于精英教育,大学和申请者的数量都较为有限,招生制度体现为自发零散的个校筛选;进入20世纪后的百余年,加拿大高等教育迅速发展,高校招考制度也变化迭出。二战前的各省多采取省级统考制,学生在高中阶段通过参加"初级入学资格"和"高级入学资格"的考试获得大学一年级和二年级的入学资格;二战后加拿大的高等教育迅速步入大众化阶段,省际间学生流动频繁,对国家统一外部考试的呼声日高,加拿大于1969年进行了历史上首次全国性的统一考试。然而由于缺乏信度和效度等原因,全国统考制仅维持了3年。此后,加拿大高校开始了综合选拔制的实践,即以学生的高中成绩为重要录取依据,选拔性招生与开放入学并存、高校自主招生与省内集中申请并行。目前,在高等教育普及化深入发展的阶段,如何在现有招生制度的框架内确保高校入学机会在社会阶层、种族、民族、性别等方面合理分布,成为政府和高校需要携手解决的问题。     

美国高考制度的三大特色

美国高校在录取新生时，通常要求申请入学者向学校提供其SAT（学术能力测试）或ACT（美国学院测试）考试成绩。这是当今美国最为主要的两种高校入学考试形式。与SAT相比，ACT规模较小，因此，人们常讲的美国高考主要指的是SAT考试。美国高考和高校招生制度有以下3大特色，这对我国高考制度的改革有一定的借鉴意义。一、看重高中各科成绩，强调平时学习的重要性美国高中学制是4年，即9～12年级。学生考大学不能单凭高考的“高分”，还需高中4年各科期评成绩平均分在“B”(良好)以上，才能被本科大学或社区学院录取。因此在美国，凡是…     

招收“优秀的头脑”

德国综合考虑成绩和素质德国各大学有独立的招生考评体系和方法,但共同的特点是都采取“综合选拔制度”,即高考分数、平时成绩及申请者的综合素质,三者合一。具体来说,除了高中学业成绩和高中毕业成绩外,学生的领导才能、外语水平、打工经验、社区服务的经历、荣誉奖状、专长(如音乐、艺术、体育),老师在推荐中对学生学业、能力、性格的评价,学生成绩在年级中的名次,“申请论文”中叙述的学习目的和计划以及从中表现出来的潜力、知识面、学术兴趣和写作水平,都是校方录取时考虑的因素。为上名校上非洲扶贫为了在申请大学时处于有利地位,很多…     

对91、92年化学高考预测效度的初探

一、研究背景效度是一个反映考试有效性的质量指标,它是评价考试能否准确地测量出考生的知识水平和能力水平程度的一个指标。如果经实践证明,通过考试能达到预定的考试目标,称这次考试是有效的。因此,要使考试有效,就必须使考试与考试目标一致。就我国高考而言,其直接目的是选择普通高校的合格新生。考试要从水平相近的考生群体中区分出哪些是最适合进一步学习的人才,所以,高考与人才的预测有直接关系。一次效果好的化学高考,应对大学一年级化学专业的学习成绩有较大的影响。从总的趋势来看,那些在高考中,化学成绩较高的学生应比那些成绩较低的学生在与化学相关的专业学习上理应更有成效。因此,预测效度是指考试对未来的学习成绩预测的有效性而言。高考的目的之一在于预测考生未来的学习能力。因此探讨高考的预测效度是非常有意义的。计算预测效度最常采用的方法,是求高考成绩与效标分数间的相关系数。该法意义明了,用法简单,便于比较。但是,作为检验化学高考预测效度的效标如何     

注重基础，突出能力，着眼运用——2009年高考英语考试大纲导读

普通高等学校招生全国统一考试是由合格的高中毕业生和具有同等学力的考生参加的选拔性考试。高等学校根据考生的成绩，按已确定的招生计划，德、智、体全面衡量，择优录取。因此，高考应有较高的信度、效度，适当的难度和必要的区分度。英语科考试是按照标准化测试要求设计的。     

为了强预测力无偏见性的考试

标准化考试成绩一直被当作通向美国大学的"黄金罗盘"。但研究表明,SAT的试题挑选逻辑存在系统性偏差,所有词汇题都是有利于白人的题目。家庭收入和父母受教育程度与SAT考试分数相关,但与高中成绩无关。实际上,高中成绩比标准化考试分数能更好地预测大学成绩,标准化考试分数对大学成绩的预测度充其量只有大约21%,而且带有歧视性质,将社会淘汰粉饰为学术淘汰。一些用于评估申请者创造性和解决实际问题能力的所谓"非认知考试"的新测试工具,也胜过以往的标准化考试,在学生大学成绩和保留率方面比SAT有更强的预测力,并且考试分数没有性别或种族差距。在过去20年,有将近1/3的四年制大学,在旧的入学制度中部分甚至全面渗透了"可免考试入学"改革,招收到了种族及社会经济地位更加多样、学术能力更强的学生。抛弃SAT或ACT指日可待。     

美国高中的课程与教学

尽管美国的高中学制因州而易,有三年、四年甚至五年不等。但高校入学申请时考察的中学受教育情况。则是学生9-12年级的成绩和表现。因此,若从我们对高中教育的一般理解来看,关国高巾可以视作四年制。而第四年,一般学生主要是准备申请大学和等待大学入学通知．真正的高中学习生活,实际上只有三年时间。     

英报刊撷

国外的“高考”美国目前的高校招生一般采用证书制和高考制两种。证书制是指高中毕业生不需通过高考,凭高中毕业证书就直接进入大学,采用这种方式的主要是一些州立学院和社区学院;但大多数学术水平高的院校还要根据学生的学习能力测试(SAT)的成绩并参考中学时的成绩全面衡量学生的学习潜能和综合素质来录取新生。美国的不少大学特别是重点大学,在招生时也要参考学生的单科考试成绩,学校也可根据学生的单科成绩以及志愿来决定其专业。但除了单科成绩以外,美国的大学招生时特别注重学生的全面素质。英国政府规定,在义务教育结束时,要为16岁…     

Work ethic and academic performance: Predicting citizenship and counterproductive behavior

In this study, work ethic was examined as a predictor of academic performance, compared with standardized test scores and high school grade point average (GPA). Academic performance was expanded to include student organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and student counterproductive behavior, comprised of cheating and disengagement, in addition to college GPA. Results indicated that work ethic explained incremental variance in student OCB, cheating and disengagement beyond standardized test scores or high school GPA. However, work ethic did not explain incremental variance in college GPA. Specific work ethic dimensions were related to each outcome. These findings provide support for the importance of non-cognitive variables in academic contexts, particularly when considering an expanded performance domain. In addition, results provide additional validity evidence for the nature of work ethic as a multidimensional construct.     

Using Explanatory Item Response Models to Analyze Group Differences in Science Achievement

Correlational evidence suggests that high school GPA is better than admission test scores in predicting first-year college GPA, although test scores have incremental predictive validity. The usefulness of a selection variable in making admission decisions depends in part on its predictive validity, but also on institutions’ selectivity and definition of success. Analyses of data from 192 institutions suggest that high school GPA is more useful than admission test scores in situations involving low selectivity in admissions and minimal to average academic performance in college. In contrast, test scores are more useful than high school GPA in situations involving high selectivity and high academic performance. In nearly all contexts, test scores have incremental usefulness beyond high school GPA. Moreover, high school GPA by test score interactions are important in predicting academic success.     

Are validity coefficients understated due to correctable defects in the GPA?

The predictive validity of preadmissions measures such as standardized test scores and high school grades may be understated because of correctable defects in both the freshman year and cumulative grade point average (GPA). Measurement error in the criterion artificially depresses the size of observed validity coefficients. A study was conducted using item response theory (IRT) to develop a more reliable measure of performance, called an IRT-based GPA, and tested in a predictive validity study using data from Stanford University. Results indicate increased predictability when the IRT-based GPA is compared with the usual GPA.This article is based, in part, on the doctoral dissertation of the author, which was completed at the School of Education at Stanford University.     

Adjusting the Cumulative GPA Using Item Response Theory

In college admissions, the predictive validity of preadmissions measures such as standardized test scores and high school grades is of wide interest. These measures are most often validated against the criterion of the first-year grade point average (GPA). However, neither the first-year GPA nor the four-year cumulative GPA is an adequate indicator of academic performance through four years of college. In this study, Item Response Theory (IRT) is used to develop a more reliable measure of performance, called an IRT-based GPA, which is used to estimate the validity of traditional preadmissions information. The data are preadmissions information and course grades for the Class of 1986 at Stanford University (N = 1564). Principal factor analysis is used as a precursor to determine the dimensionality of the course data and to partition courses into approximately unidimensional subsets, each of which is scaled independently. Results show a substantial increase in predictability when the IRT-based GPA is used instead of the usual GPA.     

The Academic Diligence Task (ADT): assessing individual differences in effort on tedious but important schoolwork

The current study reports on the development and validation of the Academic Diligence Task (ADT), designed to assess the tendency to expend effort on academic tasks which are tedious in the moment but valued in the long-term. In this novel online task, students allocate their time between solving simple math problems (framed as beneficial for problem solving skills) and, alternatively, playing Tetris or watching entertaining videos. Using a large sample of high school seniors (N = 921), the ADT demonstrated convergent validity with self-report ratings of Big Five conscientiousness and its facets, self-control and grit, as well as discriminant validity from theoretically unrelated constructs, such as Big Five extraversion, openness, and emotional stability, test anxiety, life satisfaction, and positive and negative affect. The ADT also demonstrated incremental predictive validity for objectively measured GPA, standardized math and reading achievement test scores, high school graduation, and college enrollment, over and beyond demographics and intelligence. Collectively, findings suggest the feasibility of online behavioral measures to assess noncognitive individual differences that predict academic outcomes.     

Within‐High‐School Versus Across‐High‐School Scaling of Admissions Assessments: Implications for Validity and Diversity Effects

Previous research has established that SAT scores and high school grade point average (HSGPA) differ in their predictive power and in the size of mean differences across racial/ethnic groups. However, the SAT is scaled nationally across all test takers while HSGPA is scaled locally within a school. In this study, the researchers propose that this difference in how SAT scores and HSGPA are scaled partially explains differences in validity and subgroup differences. Using a large data set consisting of 170,390 students each of whom matriculated at one of 114 separate colleges, the researchers find that awarding SAT scores by ranking SAT within a high school generally results in substantial reduction in the size of subgroup mean differences for this predictor. However, validity for predicting first‐year GPA is also reduced by a small amount. Conversely, placing HSGPA onto a nationally normed metric through the use of multiple regression procedures results in a moderate increase in the size of subgroup mean differences, while also producing a small increase in validity. Taken together, these findings suggest that differences in predictor scaling can partially explain differences in the size of subgroup mean differences between HSGPA and SAT scores and have implications for predictive power.     

Disentangling the predictive validity of high school grades for academic success in university

To refine selective admission models, we investigate which measure of prior achievement has the best predictive validity for academic success in university. We compare the predictive validity of three core high school subjects to the predictive validity of high school grade point average (GPA) for academic achievement in a liberal arts university programme. Predictive validity is compared between the Dutch pre-university (VWO) and the International Baccalaureate (IB) diploma. Moreover, we study how final GPA is predicted by prior achievement after students complete their first year. Path models were separately run for VWO (n = 314) and IB (n = 113) graduates. For VWO graduates, high school GPA explained more variance than core subject grades in first-year GPA and final GPA. For IB graduates, we found the opposite. Subsequent path models showed that after students’ completion of the first year, final GPA is best predicted by a combination of first-year GPA and high school GPA. Based on our small-scale results, we cautiously challenge the use of high school GPA as the norm for measuring prior achievement. Which measure of prior achievement best predicts academic success in university may depend on the diploma students enter with.     

Motivation for School Achievement: Measurement and Validation

Abstract

An objective instrument for assessment of motivation for school learning is reported along with evidence of its validity. Rural ninth-grade students in Appalachian Kentucky constituted the sample for studying relation, ships among variables of school motivation, willingness to compete, and achievement in reading, mathematics, and language. Students in general mathematics and in algebra classes were asked to volunteer for an academic type of contest. Later the mean motivation score of volunteers exceeded the mean for non-volunteers significant at the .01 level of confidence. Algebra students’ mean motivation score was significantly higher than the mean for general mathematics students (P > .001). Three months after the motivation scores were obtained scores on the California Achievement Test were collected. Product-moment correlations between motivation scores and achievement scores ranged from .604 to .718.

Although other writers have reported correlations between objective measures of motivation and teachers’ marks, no previous correlations with achievement test results could be found for comparison. Correlations with GPA’s tend to be in the range .32 to .55 which is considerably below the range resulting from this study. Data collected in this project supported hypotheses that the objective measure of school motivation would predict levels of utility for competition and achievement. It is concluded that for the sample of students involved the test presented is reliable and has validity for the prediction of willingness to try and levels of achievement as measured by a standardized test.     

Effects of a college access program for youth underrepresented in higher education: A randomized experiment

This article describes EXCEL, a program that encourages youth underrepresented in higher education to enroll in higher education, specifically at the sponsoring university. Eighty-three eighth grade students with GPA of B and above and standardized test scores at grade level or above were randomly assigned to the program or to a control group. The program guaranteed a scholarship to the sponsoring university and provided enrichment activities throughout high school. Program students were more likely to enroll at the sponsoring university than were control students. However, program and control students enrolled in higher education at rates that did not differ significantly. No differences were detected in self-esteem or high school GPA. Program students desired more education than control students. The results suggest that scholarship incentive and support programs that target average to above average achieving students in the eighth grade may not raise the overall number of aspiring minority youth attending college, but may be useful to specific universities to raise their minority enrollment.