Child abuse in Hong Kong revisited after 15 years: Characteristics of victims and abusers

The purpose of this paper was to examine the characteristics of the victims and abusers of child abuse cases on the Child Protection Registry in Hong Kong as of March 1995 and to compare findings with a similar community report of child abuse in Hong Kong conducted approximately 15 years earlier. As of March 31, 1995, there were 457 active cases of child abuse or suspected child abuse (44% male and 56% female) on the computerized Child Protection Registry. Fifty percent of the victims were grade school age children between 7–12, and 62.4% suffered physical abuse. The abusers or suspected abusers were 52% male and 48% female with nearly half (49%) in their thirties. The majority of abusers were married/cohabiting (75%) with only a grade school education (60%). As compared to 1979, there was an increase of sexual child abuse cases, female victims of child abuse, and an increase in male abusers or suspected abusers.     

The nature and substantiation of official sexual abuse reports

A representative sample of 796 sexual abuse reports from New York State in 1985 was studied to explore factors associated with the decision to substantiate or unsubstantiate these reports. This study focused on the age, sex, and ethnicity of the subject child, and the source of the report as predictors of case substantiation. Substantiation rates tended to increase with the age of the child although this was more characteristic of reports involving female than male victims. Overall, reports involving female children were more likely to be substantiated than those involving male children. Ethnicity of the child showed no significant relationship to substantiation. Source of report, however, showed a strong relationship to case determination, with mandated reports found to be substantiated at a rate 13% higher than reports from non-mandated sources.     

The influence of childhood sexual abuse,physical abuse,family environment,and gender on the psychological adjustment of adolescents

OBJECTIVE: The primary aim of the current study was to examine the contributions of sexual abuse, physical abuse, family cohesion, and conflict in predicting the psychological functioning of adolescents. Additional analyses were conducted to determine whether adolescent victims of child sexual abuse and physical abuse perceive their family environments as more conflictual and less cohesive than nonabused adolescents. METHOD: Participants were 131 male and female adolescents, ages 16 years to 18 years, receiving services at a residential vocational training program. Participants completed well established psychological assessment tools to assess abuse history, family environment characteristics, and current adjustment. RESULTS: Physically abused adolescent females perceived their family environments as more conflictual and less cohesive than females without physical abuse, and sexually abused females perceived their family environments as more conflictual and less cohesive than females without sexual abuse. Physically abused adolescent males reported more conflict than males without physical abuse, but did not differ with regard to cohesion. Adolescent males with and without a sexual abuse history did not differ on the family dimensions. Multiple regression analyses revealed that both conflict and cohesion, in addition to a history of sexual and physical abuse, predicted depression and distress. Separate analyses by gender revealed these variables differentially impact adjustment in male and female adolescents. Results of a power analysis indicated sufficient power to detect these differences. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that in addition to child sexual abuse and physical abuse, family conflict and cohesion are risk factors for the development of psychological distress and depression in adolescence. Implications for treatment and directions for future research are discussed.     

Patterns of child abuse and neglect associated with chronological age of children living in a midwestern county.

OBJECTIVE: The main objective of the study was to investigate the relationship between age of the very young victim and the type of abuse perpetrated against that victim. A secondary objective was to examine gender and racial differences in child abuse and neglect in children between the ages of birth and 7 years. METHOD: Archived data for all cases of substantiated abuse of children for the years of 1990-1996 inclusive were retrieved from a data bank at a county children services department (N = 876). Chi-square analyses were used to determine age, gender, and racial differences in child abuse and neglect in children 0 to 7 years of age. RESULTS: Neglect was the most common form of primary substantiated abuse recorded for this population of children under the age of 7 years, although the incidence of neglect decreased as chronological age of the child increased. Sexual abuse increased in occurrence as the children got older. Girls were more likely to be victims of sexual abuse than boys. No significant age differences were observed for physical abuse or for emotional abuse, and no racial differences were detected for any of the four types of abuse examined. CONCLUSIONS: Although the findings of this study are in agreement with those of previously published reports, there is some question as to whether archived data are an accurate reflection of actual patterns of maltreatment occurring in very young children or whether they represent the types of abuse that are subjectively identified and reported by authorities.     

The maltreatment of adolescents

Official reports of maltreatment involving adolescent victims were compared to those involving younger children in a representative sample of protective services' reports drawn from New York State in 1985. Specific case characteristics, including age, gender, ethnicity of the victim, and source of report, are described and their relation to case substantiation is examined. Analyses revealed that adolescents represent a substantial proportion of all victims of official child maltreatment reports. The impact of age on substantiation varied as a function of the type of maltreatment, where for adolescents sexual abuse reports were more likely to be substantiated, while neglect and physical abuse reports were less likely to be substantiated. Reports involving adolescents were significantly more likely to involve a female victim. Significant gender differences in substantiation rate were found only for sexual abuse reports involving adolescents. White children were also found to be under-represented in this sample, while blacks were over-represented relative to their numbers in the population. The impact of minority status on substantiation was significant for neglect and physical abuse reports involving children. The majority of adolescent reports came from mandated sources, which had a significantly higher substantiation rate than reports from non-mandated sources.     

Victim, perpetrator, family, and incident characteristics of infant and child homicide in the United States Air Force

OBJECTIVE: The present study describes factors related to fatal abuse in three age groups in the United States Air Force (USAF). METHOD: Records from 32 substantiated cases of fatal child abuse in the USAF were independently reviewed for 60 predefined factors. RESULTS: Males were over-represented in young child victims (between 1 year and 4 years of age) and child victims (between 4 years and 15 years of age) but not in infant victims (between 24 hours and 1 year of age). African-American infant victims and perpetrators were over-represented. Younger victims were more likely to have been previously physically abused by the perpetrator. Perpetrators were predominantly male and the biological fathers of the victims. Infant and young child perpetrators reported childhood abuse histories, while child perpetrators reported the highest frequency of mental health contact. Victims' families reported significant life stressors. Families of young child victims were more likely divorced, separated, or single. Incidents with infants and young children tended to occur without witnesses; incidents with child victims tended to have the victim's sibling(s) and/or mother present. Fatal incidents were more frequent on the weekend, in the home, and initiated by some family disturbance. CONCLUSIONS: Differences among groups in factors related to infant and child homicide across age groups may assist in the development of more tailored abuse prevention efforts and may also guide future investigations.     

Decisions and attitudes concerning child sexual abuse: does the gender of the perpetrator make a difference to child protection professionals?

Objective: An investigation was conducted into whether child protection investigators, specifically social workers and the police, are as likely to take seriously a case of child sexual abuse if it had been perpetrated by a female rather than a male. Also, to examine whether the decisions relating to female-perpetrated abuse were predicted by participants’ sex role perceptions of women and their attitudes concerning women’s sexualized behavior towards children.Method: Participants advocated decisions in response to four hypothetical case of child sexual abuse in which the perpetrator was either male or female. The female perpetrators were then rated on femininity and masculinity characteristics and attitudes concerning women’s sexualized behavior toward children were assessed.Results: Following male—rather than female—perpetrated sexual abuse, case registration and imprisonment of the perpetrator was considered more appropriate by all participant groups; male social workers also considered social services involvement and investigation as more appropriate. A substantial number of decisions concerning female perpetrated abuse were predicted by participants’ attitudes.Conclusion: While child protection professionals considered child sexual abuse perpetrated by females to be a serious issue warranting intervention, a number of advocated decisions suggested that they did not consider female-perpetrated abuse to be as serious as male-perpetrated abuse. The implication is that victims of sexual abuse perpetrated by a woman may be less likely to receive the protection afforded victims of male-perpetrated abuse. Furthermore, professionals’ practices may be inadvertently perpetuating the view that female child sexual abuse is rare or less harmful than abuse carried out by males.Spanish abstract was not available at time of publication.     

Sexual abuse of children under 12 years of age: a review of 511 cases

In a retrospective study of 511 cases of alleged sexual abuse in children 12 years of age and under, data were analyzed with respect to the victim's age, sex, and the type of sexual abuse (intra- or extrafamilial). A total of 85.5% of the victims were female and 14.5% were male with ages ranging from 2 months to 12 years. The mean age of female victims was 6.8 years and that of male victims, 7.4 years. Most victims (68%) presented with histories of single assault by a known perpetrator (78%). Characteristics of abuse were found to be associated with the victim's age, sex, and relationship to the assailant. School-age victims were more likely to be abused by an individual outside the family or by a complete stranger. Older victims were also more likely to be involved in severe forms of sexual abuse (penetration, attempted penetration or oral-genital contact), associated with acts of abduction and with reports to the police. Male victims were more likely to be assaulted by a stranger, outside the home environment, and to suffer a more severe form of sexual abuse than female victims. Finally, extrafamilial sexual abuse was distinguished from intrafamilial sexual abuse insofar as it was more often a single episode, occurring outside the home environment, involving an act of abduction and physical force, and being reported to the police.     

The unusual suspects: Female versus male accused in child sexual abuse cases

When women encounter the criminal justice system, it is typically as victims rather than as offenders. Consequently, there is limited empirical research on women who have sexually offended against children, but there is a clinically-significant group of victims who have experienced female-perpetrated child sexual abuse (CSA). In a database of 4237 CSA cases that were heard in criminal courts between 1986 and 2012, we found 70 cases that involved female accused. We compared female-accused cases against a randomly selected sample of 70 male-accused cases from the same database. We investigated associations between gender of the accused and characteristics of the victim, offense, and criminal proceeding. Several important differences between female- and male-accused cases were found: proportionally more male complainants were in female-accused cases; female-accused offenses were longer in duration; and despite offenses being similarly intrusive, female perpetrators received shorter sentences. This research indicates that there are potentially unique pathways to abuse for women and men, and unique experiences in the criminal justice system. Although female perpetrators are involved in a small proportion of CSA offenses, the cases that we describe herein are important to consider when developing appropriate support and intervention programs for offenders and victims of CSA.     

Erroneous concerns about child sexual abuse

AIM: To assess the incidence and nature of concerns about sexual abuse, with particular reference to erroneous concerns of sexual abuse made by children. METHODS: A review of case notes of all child sexual abuse reports to the Denver Department of Social Services over 12 months. Cases were put into four groups: substantiated, not sexual abuse, inconclusive and erroneous accounts by children. RESULTS: 551 cases were reviewed. Forty-three percent were substantiated, 21% were inconclusive and 34% were not considered to be abuse cases. There were 14 (2.5%) erroneous concerns emanating from children. They comprised three cases of allegations made in collusion with a parent, three cases where an innocent event was misinterpreted as sexual abuse and eight cases (1.5%) of false allegations of sexual abuse.CONCLUSION: Erroneous concern of sexual abuse from children are uncommon. The four categories of concern in this study, in contrast to the simple classification of substantiated and unsubstantiated, provide a means of encouraging open minded assessments of the typical concerns which a child protection agency receives.     

Which sexual abuse victims receive a forensic medical examination? The impact of Children's Advocacy Centers

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the impact of Children's Advocacy Centers (CAC) and other factors, such as the child's age, alleged penetration, and injury on the use of forensic medical examinations as part of the response to reported child sexual abuse. METHODS: This analysis is part of a quasi-experimental study, the Multi-Site Evaluation of Children's Advocacy Centers, which evaluated four CACs relative to within-state non-CAC comparison communities. Case abstractors collected data on forensic medical exams in 1,220 child sexual abuse cases through review of case records. RESULTS: Suspected sexual abuse victims at CACs were two times more likely to have forensic medical examinations than those seen at comparison communities, controlling for other variables. Girls, children with reported penetration, victims who were physically injured while being abused, White victims, and younger children were more likely to have exams, controlling for other variables. Non-penetration cases at CACs were four times more likely to receive exams as compared to those in comparison communities. About half of exams were conducted the same day as the reported abuse in both CAC and comparison communities. The majority of caregivers were very satisfied with the medical professional. Receipt of a medical exam was not associated with offenders being charged. CONCLUSIONS: Results of this study suggest that CACs are an effective tool for furthering access to forensic medical examinations for child sexual abuse victims.     

Factors associated with divorce in intrafamily child sexual abuse cases

This study analyzes factors related to the decision to divorce in intrafamilial sexual abuse cases. Data was collected on 128 cases of incest in St. Louis, Missouri, through the Washington University Child Guidance Center. Examination of multiple variables revealed there are differences between child sexual abuse cases that elect to stay together vs. those that divorce subsequent to the discovery of abuse. Families that broke up were more likely to have young child victims and have additional problems with domestic violence. The child was more likely to have revealed the abuse to the mother and have been believed by her in divorcing cases.     

Analysis of sexual abuse hotline reports

As concern about physical child abuse and neglect has increased, so too has the realization that children are also sexually exploited and abused. Yet, many protective service workers are often ill prepared to perform the difficult task of treating the abused child and his/her family. Through the analysis of sexual abuse hotline reports, the central aim of this study was to generate findings that would increase the knowledge base of protective service workers and private therapists engaged in treating sexually abused children and their families. To accomplish this task, and using seven classes of variables, analysis was performed on 205 substantiated cases of childhood sexual abuse. A number of important conclusions were discovered including: One-third of the cases had been reported to the agency previously; less than one-half (48%) of the victimized children were living with their natural fathers; natural fathers were identified as the perpetrator in 39% of the cases; and in contrast to other studies, a great number of cases (43%) involved vaginal intercourse between the victim and the perpetrator. Implications for treatment are also discussed, particularly in relation to improving resources and specialized training for workers involved in this highly sensitive area of practice.     

Female child perpetrators: children who molest other children

Little is known about sexual perpetration by females or by young children. This paper describes the sexual perpetration behavior of 13 female child perpetrators between 4 and 13 years of age. These children were treated in a specially designed program for child perpetrators, the Support Program for Abuse-Reactive Kids (SPARK) at Children's Institute International of Los Angeles, California. All of these girls used force or coercion to gain the compliance of the other child or children. Of these child perpetrators, 100% had been previously sexually abused; 31% had been physically abused; 85% were molested by family members; 77% of the girls chose a victim in their family (the other 3 girls had no available family members). The mean age of their first known perpetration was 6 years, 9 months. The average age of their victims was 4 years, 4 months. The average number of victims of these girls was 3.5 with a range of 1 to 15. The girls victimized two times more boys than girls. There was a history of sexual, physical, and substance abuse in the families of these children. Hypotheses regarding the genesis of the sexually abusive behavior in these female child perpetrators are explored.     

Use of a home-based microcomputer to analyze community data from reported cases of child abuse and neglect

A personal microcomputer data base program was used to study 184 substantiated 1981 child abuse and neglect cases in the city of Lansing, Michigan. Data on 18 variables were entered directly into the microcomputer from the agency case closing forms in 7$\text{1}\text{2}$ hours. The microcomputer can sort by one or more variables. In analyzing the data, the following questions were addressed: Who reports the child abuse cases? In what types of families does abuse occur? Who are the perpetrators in relation to the child? Who are the victims by age and race? What types of abuse are substantiated? How many of the cases are repeats? Where are substantiated cases located? This study was both simple and inexpensive, requiring minimal staff time, a microcomputer with a data base program, and data already available in agency files. This study could be duplicated in any area by noncomputer persons to help professionals, community organizers, and others to better understand their community and help the abusive family.     

Violence among family members of children and adolescents evaluated for sexual abuse

OBJECTIVES: The two aims of this study were to: (1). describe the prevalence and characteristics of domestic adult and child physical violence in the homes of children and adolescents evaluated in a specialized sexual abuse clinic and (2). describe parent or caretaker responses to domestic adult and child violence and child sexual abuse, including tendencies to report or seek medical care. METHOD: A consecutive sample of 164 subjects (ages 7-19) were interviewed in a sexual abuse clinic regarding in-home violent or abusive experiences among family members that had occurred at any time during their childhood. RESULTS: Fifty-two percent of these children and teenagers reported spousal violence in their home. Fifty-eight percent of child sexual offenders who were in-home males also physically abused their adult female partner. Half of in-home males who were physically violent to children also sexually abused them. In 86% of homes with partner violence, the children were also physically assaulted. There was no difference in sexual abuse disclosure rates or patterns for children living with or without adult violence. CONCLUSIONS: Sexually abused children should be questioned about physical abuse and the presence of violence among adults in their home. Safety plans for sexually abused children should incorporate screening for family violence and safety plans for parents and siblings of child victims, when appropriate.     

Characteristics of a clinical sample of sexually abused children: how boy and girl victims differ

The article describes a clinical sample of 87 boy victims of child sexual abuse and compares them to 226 girl victims. Boys were on average 6.3 years of age at onset of the sexual abuse; girls were 5.5 years. Boys were more likely to be victimized by someone outside the family than girls, but about two-thirds of the boys were abused by someone within the family. Male victims were more often abused by someone who sexually abused other children than were female victims. The majority of perpetrators were men; however girls were more likely than boys to be abused by men, and boys by both men and women. Only a small percentage of the offenders were women acting alone, but boys were more likely to be abused by women than girls. In addition, data on the role relationship between victim and offender and how these relationships differ for boy and girl victims are presented.     

Recorded offending among child sexual abuse victims: A 30-year follow-up

In this paper we employed a prospective design to examine the effect of child sexual abuse (CSA) on life-course offending by comparing victims to both their siblings and random controls in the Netherlands. Information on victimization was gathered from court files and on offending from official criminal records. We found that victims of CSA were more at risk of offending than random controls, but so were their siblings. Only female victims were more likely to offend than their own siblings. The increased risk for offending was not specifically found for sexual offenses, instead it was found for various types of offenses. The found difference between female victims and siblings held true for abuse perpetrated by someone outside the family. We therefore conclude that family and environmental factors are the most important to explain offending among male CSA victims, while these factors alone are not enough to explain the effect of CSA on offending for females.     

Trends in child maltreatment in the US Army, 1975-1997.

OBJECTIVE: To examine trends by year in reports of victims of child maltreatment in the US Army Central Registry (ACR) during the period 1975-97. We report the rates/1,000 children of Army families of initial substantiated cases from 1988-97 and the number of cases of maltreatment as a percentage of total victims for each year from 1975-97. Army data are compared to published reports from military service child abuse registries. METHODS: Numbers of cases of child maltreatment for each year were obtained from the ACR for major, minor, and total physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. Population figures for numbers of children were obtained from the Defense Manpower Data Center. RESULTS: The rates/1,000 for neglect have decreased by 24% from 1991-97, although the decrease has not been steady. The rates/1,000 of minor physical abuse declined 28% from 1993-97. The rates/1,000 of major physical abuse were basically unchanged from 1988-96, although the highest rate was recorded in 1997. The rates/1,000 of sexual abuse were also basically unchanged with the exception of increases in 1992-94 after which time the rates/1,000 returned to the pre-1992 levels. The rates/1,000 of emotional abuse cases more than doubled from 1988-97. CONCLUSIONS: While minor physical abuse and neglect have shown decreases over the past decade, major physical abuse has remained virtually unchanged and sexual and emotional abuse have shown fluctuations. All these forms of maltreatment are challenges to the Army Family Advocacy Program.