Toward a taxonomy of adaptivity for learning

Abstract

Adaptive learning and personalization have long been of great interest to learning designers and educators, and recent technological advances that have opened up a range of new possibilities for adaptivity. However, we lack clear definitions of the terms adaptivity and personalization, and the theoretical and empirical soundness of implementations of corresponding systems varies greatly. We therefore first provide definitions for key concepts related to adaptivity. We then discuss what variable systems should adapt for, how these variables can be measured, and what modifications to the learner experience can be made based on these variables. We propose a taxonomy of adaptivity that distinguishes adaptivity based on cognitive, emotional, motivational, and social/cultural variables, and that defines types of adaptivity at a macro-level and a micro-level.     

Strategies for developing a sustainable learning society: An analysis of lifelong learning in Thailand

Today’s world may be characterised as the dawn of the new millennium of the learning society, where knowledge is considered as a country’s most valued asset and primary source of power. In the increasingly intense competition among international communities, Thailand has been respected for advancing the concept of transforming communities, cities and regions into learning societies engaged in a sustainable development strategy which promotes the continual learning of individuals – the smallest unit of society. The learning society approach aims to balance economic, social, natural and environmental aspects and resources of society; and is transforming the Thai people into knowledge citizens and knowledge workers. The underlying legislation carries stipulations concerning lifelong learning, educational enhancement and global competitiveness aimed towards developing appropriate manpower to move the society towards sustainable happiness as compared and contrasted with maintaining the “status quo”. This article portrays the current situation of lifelong learning and education in Thailand; analyses and synthesises five best-practice learning society case studies and proposes guidelines for developing a sustainable learning society.     

Refining a learning progression of energy

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a revised learning progression for the energy concept and initial findings on diverse progressions among subgroups of sample students. The revised learning progression describes how students progress towards an understanding of the energy concept along two progress variables identified from previous studies – key ideas about energy and levels of conceptual development. To assess students understanding with respect to the revised learning progression, we created a specific instrument, the Energy Concept Progression Assessment (ECPA) based on previous work on assessing students’ understanding of energy. After iteratively refining the instrument in two pilot studies, the ECPA was administered to a total of 4550 students (Grades 8–12) from schools in two districts in a major city in Mainland China. Rasch analysis was used to examine the validity of the revised learning progression and explore factors explaining different progressions. Our results confirm the validity of the four conceptual development levels. In addition, we found that although following a similar progression pattern, students’ progression rate was significantly influenced by environmental factors such as school type. In the discussion of our findings, we address the non-linear and complex nature of students’ progression in understanding energy. We conclude with illuminating our research's implication for curriculum design and energy teaching.     

Towards a learning progression of energy

This article presents an empirical study on an initial learning progression of energy, a concept of central importance to the understanding of science. Learning progressions have been suggested as one vehicle to support the systematic and successful teaching of core science concepts. Ideally, a learning progression will provide teachers with a framework to assess students' level of understanding of a core concept and to guide students towards a more sophisticated level of understanding. Taking existing research as a point of departure, developing a learning progression involves recurring cycles of empirical validation and theoretical refinement. In this article, we report about our efforts in working towards a learning progression of energy. First, we derived an initial learning progression by utilizing existing curriculum, research on students' understanding, and development of students' understanding of energy. Second, we used these sources of guidance to develop a robust measurement instrument, the Energy Concept Assessment (ECA), based on multiple choice questions. Third, we utilized this instrument to assess the understanding of N = 1,856 students from three different grade levels, Grades 6, 8, and 10. Findings provided evidence that students from Grade 6 mostly obtain an understanding of energy forms and energy sources. Students of Grade 8 additionally demonstrate an understanding of energy transfer and transformation, whereas only students of Grade 10, and then only some of these students, achieve a deeper understanding of energy conservation. We discuss the implications of our findings against the background of existing research on students understanding of energy. Finally, further steps in working towards a learning progression of energy are identified. Zusammenfassung: Der vorliegende Artikel beschreibt den ersten Schritt in der Entwicklung und Validierung einer Learning Progression für das Energiekonzept; einem Konzept, das zentral für die Entwicklung eines tiefergehenden Versta¨?ndnisses der Naturwissenschaften ist. Learning Progressions sollen das das systematische und erfolgreiche Unterrichten zentraler naturwissenschaftlicher Konzepte unterstützen. Idealerweise sollen Learning Progressions Lehrkräften eine Rahmen bieten, den Entwicklungsstand ihrer Schülerinnen und Schüler hinsichtlich des Verständnisses zentraler naturwissenschaftlicher Konzepte einzuschätzen und Unterricht so zu gestalten, dass er die Entwicklung eines elaborierten Verständnisses befördert. Die Entwicklung einer Learning Progression beginnt mit der theoretischen Begründung einer vorläufigen Learning Progression, gefolgt von iterativen Zyklen empirischer Validierung und Überarbeitung. In diesem Artikel berichten wir über unsere Arbeiten zur Entwicklung einer Learning Progression für das Energiekonzept. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeiten wurde zunächst ausgehend von vorliegenden Befunden zum Verständnis und der Entwicklung des Verständnisses von Energie eine vorläufige Learning Progression begründet. Im zweiten Schritt wurde auf Grundlage der Learning Progression ein entsprechendes Instrument auf Basis von Multiple‐Choice‐Aufgaben entwickelt – das Energy Concept Assessment (ECA). Im dritten und letzten Schritt wurde das Instrument eingesetzt, um das Verständnis von Energie bei N = 1856 Schülerinnen und Schülern der Jahrgänge 6, 8 und 10 zu erfassen. Die Ergebnisse unserer Untersuchung legen nahe, dass Schülerinnen und Schüler aus Jahrgang 6 im Wesentlichen über ein Verständnis von Energieformen und –quellen verfügen. Schülerinnen und Schüler aus Jahrgang 8 zeigen darüber hinaus ein Verständnis von Energieumwandlung und –transport. Ein Verständnis von Energieerhaltung ist nur von Schülerinnen und Schüler aus Jahrgang 10 und dann auch nur von einem Teil dieser Schülerinnen und Schüler zu erwarten. Vor dem Hintergrund dieser Ergebnisse und der bisherigen Forschung zum Energieverständnis, diskutiert der Artikel weitere Schritte für die die Entwicklung einer Learning Progression für das Energiekonzept. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 50:162–188, 2013     

Third age learning: adapting the idea to a Thailand context of lifelong learning

The concept of the university of the third age (U3A) is well established overseas and a key international focus for emerging global networks of senior citizen (i.e. seniors) lifelong learning. However it is yet to become so in Thailand although it too is in the process of becoming an ageing society. Moreover, this is despite the extent to which community learning centres and related agencies of non-formal as well as formal learning are popular and generally well-established in the local context. This paper investigates the reasons for possible local resistance to the U3A concept. It will do so as a basis for exploring the idea of reframing local efforts to promote seniors lifelong learning in terms of a wider and cross-culturally convergent concept of ‘third age learning’. In this way the paper will further consider some of the interesting, relevant and transferable global implications of the local dilemma regarding the U3A concept in a fast-changing world of increasing uncertainty in work, security, and other aspects of life.     

Examining activity-based learning (ABL) practices in public basic schools in the northern region of Ghana

Background: Ghana has been the testing ground for many teaching and learning initiatives over the past 15–20 years. These initiatives, largely funded by donors, have sought to improve learning by introducing and reinforcing valuable teaching skills, materials and approaches, most of them child-friendly, learner-centred and involving activity-based learning (ABL). However, a problem in Ghana, also true of other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, is that whereas efforts over the past few decades have improved access to basic education in both pupil enrolment rates and teacher numbers, educational quality as measured by standardised test scores in key subject areas remains rather low.

Purpose: This article reports on an aspect of a DfID (Ghana) – sponsored research project which examined how the quality of teaching and learning in Ghanaian basic schools could be improved through the utilisation of ABL pedagogy. The current article examines three overarching themes relative to ABL pedagogy, namely how participants conceptualise ABL; ways in which ABL practices reveal themselves in classrooms; and challenges of ABL practices in Ghanaian schools.

Sample: Participants (comprising representatives of Colleges of Education, District Directors and frontline Deputy Directors of Education, headteachers and teachers) were drawn using purposive sampling technique from eight schools from within four districts of the northern region of Ghana.

Design and Methods: A case study approach was adopted for the study. Data collection took the form of semi-structured interviews, focused group discussions and observation of ABL practices and lessons in selected schools. Data analysis was undertaken using a ‘processual analytical approach’ with the view to catching realities of ABL practices in the Ghanaian educational setting.

Results: Our analysis reveals that whereas the literature on ABL emphasises multi-tasking and group work as essential ingredients of ABL pedagogy, the respondents conceptualised this as meaning pupils working on the same activity-related tasks at the same time in groups. Similarly, we found that, ideally, ABL practices reveal themselves through classroom practices such as display of pupils’ work in classrooms, organisation of the seating arrangements of pupils in groups, use of teaching and learning materials, formative assessment and activity-oriented lessons among others. However, in almost all the schools and classrooms we visited, these essential ingredients were missing owing to congestion and lack of furniture and logistics.

Conclusions: We conclude against the backdrop of our findings that ABL techniques can be utilised more effectively in Ghanaian schools if its practices are initially promoted in model schools, for lessons to be learned, and then scaled-up as expertise is established in these model schools.     

Utilising place-based learning through local contexts to develop agents of change in Early Childhood Education for Sustainability

ABSTRACT

The aim of this research was to consider how young children could develop an education for sustainable mind-set, through place-based learning within a local context. This research built upon the development of an Early Childhood Education for Sustainable (ECEfS) framework (Boyd, D., H. Hirst, and C. McNeill. 2016. Early Childhood Education for Sustainable Framework 48 (ECEfS). https://www.foundationyears.org.uk/2017/09/environmental-sustainability-resources/). The place-based research focused upon Dewey's theory of experiential learning and by engaging in offsite longitudinal community-based projects, where young children become familiar with their own locality. This familiarity encourages children to develop an ecological self within place by being submerged in an ever-changing natural environment through the Forest School Philosophy, with an emphasis upon regular visits conducted over an extended period. Over a period of a year children and adults in different and diverse settings experienced opportunities for place-based learning to develop their Education for Sustainability perspective. Observations focused upon children and adults considering how they both started to become more aware of local critical issues and related them to their own reality. The research received ethical approval by LJMU and all involved chose to take part and could withdraw at any time.     

Toward a scientific pedagogy of learning disabilities: a sameness in the message

The development of a scientific pedagogy of learning disabilities as called for by Kirk and Bateman (1962) requires the rendering of a science of learning disabilities and a pedagogy derived from that science. But such a pedagogy is necessarily incomplete if it fails to recognize that the structure of the curriculum significantly shapes the act of teaching students identified as learning disabled. The current thinking about curricula is that the universe of information that a curriculum program comprises need only be organized around subject area topics (e.g., mathematics, reading, language arts, science, social studies) and hierarchically arranged in a scope and sequence that has as its main characteristic the general ordering of skills from simple to complex. For all practical purposes, information is viewed as raw material (Kaufman et al., 1990) that can be nominally organized and readily packaged. The information is then consumed as curriculum that requires little or no transformation of its form or structure. The articles in this series of the Journal of Learning Disabilities provide examples of how transforming information by identifying and developing curricula around structural samenesses can lead to a pedagogy that is efficient and effective. The development of a scientific pedagogy of learning disabilities requires that the field acknowledge the importance of curriculum structure and the complexity of information. The field must also examine the intricacies of designing curricula with the same kind of commitment and passion it has demonstrated in the last 30 years in investigating the etiology and organic basis of learning disabilities.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Toward a functional learning system for Solomon Island secondary science classrooms

This paper uses a model of Melanesian Solomon Islanders' informal learning system derived from participant observation and interview data to analyse classroom interactions at the senior secondary level. Key learning strategies in the Melanesian informal learning system are observation, imitation, listening, participation and asking. Key contextual elements described pertain to the maintenance of interpersonal relationships, kin‐group and peer‐oriented learning, and epistemology, sociolinguistics and time orientation. This analysis is used to enhance the attainment of classroom goals through the development of a functional learning system for laboratory‐oriented science lessons comprising teaching strategies and classroom management techniques which incorporate particular elements of the Melanesian informal learning system. Evidence is presented supporting the selective use of observation, active imitation, listening and participation in a classroom context which maintains respect between participants and assigns roles to them in ways congruent with Melanesian cultural norms.     

Toward deep learning for adult students in online courses

Adult students have become the new majority in online distance education. Research in online distance education, however, is still predominantly based on the historical perspective of the traditional student profile. This study examines adult students' learning engagement in online courses and explores the impact of online course design models and the type of online discussion on adult students' self-perceived and observable learning performance. The study findings inform that age itself does not predict adult students' learning satisfaction and performance. Instead, an integrated course model promotes learning satisfaction, while a Content + Support course model reinforces knowledge–constructive online interactions. The study findings also indicate disadvantages of close-ended discussion tasks in supporting students' online learning success.     

Toward constructivism for adult learners in online learning environments

Since online learning has a different setting from the conventional classroom, online educators need to use some special techniques and perceptions to lead to success. Moreover, adults have special needs and requirements as learners compared with children and adolescents, thus online educators should know how adults can learn best because of their special characteristics. Philosophical and methodological shifts also affect instruction. Many researchers have suggested that constructivism should be applied in distance education. Thus, this paper attempts to examine the impact of constructivism in online learning environments when focusing on adult learners. The author develops the connection between constructivism and adult learning theory. In addition, the paper proposes instructional guidelines using the constructivist approach in online learning for adults.     

Investigating effective teaching methods for a place-based teacher preparation in a rural community

In this article, I argue for the need to improve teacher preparation (TP) courses for elementary education student teachers to teach English-language arts (ELA). In particular, these TP programs need to support student teachers in delivering culturally responsive pedagogy within rural classrooms. Twenty-three student teachers participated in this research, which was aimed at investigating effective teaching pedagogy both within a place-based TP course and within teaching experiences within a rural border county. The student teachers took a course in literacy methods for 16 weeks, taught ELA in elementary schools using specific methods, and participated in videotaped collaborative reflections. Data collection for the study involved the student teachers’ responses to reflective questions, field notes, and evaluative essays. The findings suggested that providing student teachers with project-based, cooperative, inquiry-based activities, as well as opportunities for collaborative reflection during their university classes provided a learning context for the student teachers that connected ELA instruction to the economic situations of the rural communities. In addition, the findings indicated that the activities prepared the student teachers to develop the skills to relate instruction to people, culture, and social practices of rural the communities, value pupils’ local knowledge and community resources, and learn from diverse perspectives and experiences of their peers.     

Characteristics and differences of lifelong learning policy implementation for the elderly in Thailand

The study examined the process of policy implementation of lifelong learning for the elderly in Thailand, covering four main regions within the country. The study empirically compared inputs, processes, outputs, and outcomes of policy implementation in the north, south, northeast, and central regions of Thailand and captured the rigor of policy implementation. Using qualitative research methodology, the study showed that each region had established a networking model among stakeholders differently, with distinct actors as focal points in promoting the policy. North and south were the two regions where the elderly were most active and had contributed substantially in terms of inputs. They had also steered the process of policy implementation through close collaboration with sub-district administrative offices and the establishment of their respective associations for the elderly. The other two regions depended on support from the central government and regional branch of the office of non-formal and informal education. The sharp contrast between the regions led to the conclusion that the direction and pro-activeness in promoting lifelong learning policy for the elderly people in Thailand yielded different policy outputs and outcomes; that policy outputs and outcomes remained at the discretion of key actors within each locality; and that policy output and outcome were also not completely dependent on the top-down direction provided by the national government.     

The emergence of a learning progression in middle school chemistry

Previously, a small scale, interview‐based, 3‐year longitudinal study (ages 11–14) in one school had suggested a learning progression related to the concept of a substance. This article presents the results of a large‐scale, cross‐sectional study which used Rasch modeling to test the hypothesis of the learning progression. Data were collected from 4,450 students, aged 11–14, across 30 secondary schools in England using a computer‐based assessment instrument. The construction of the items was informed by the research literature on students' understanding in chemistry. One hundred seventy‐six fixed response items, in three formats, involving the use of video and animation were developed. Scored dichotomously, overall, the data show a good fit to the Rasch model. Item difficulties have a high degree of invariance across ability, schools, gender, and year group. Conceptually, when items are placed in order of difficulty, a coherent progression of ideas emerges which matches the expectations from the longitudinal study. The learning progression is presented. Independent, nationally standardized data allow tentative projection of student performance to the wider population in England. Implications for research and curriculum design are discussed. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 48: 849–877, 2011     

Developing a hypothetical multi‐dimensional learning progression for the nature of matter

We describe efforts toward the development of a hypothetical learning progression (HLP) for the growth of grade 7–14 students' models of the structure, behavior and properties of matter, as it relates to nanoscale science and engineering (NSE). This multi‐dimensional HLP, based on empirical research and standards documents, describes how students need to incorporate and connect ideas within and across their models of atomic structure, the electrical forces that govern interactions at the nano‐, molecular, and atomic scales, and information in the Periodic Table to explain a broad range of phenomena. We developed a progression from empirical data that characterizes how students currently develop their knowledge as part of the development and refinement of the HLP. We find that most students are currently at low levels in the progression, and do not perceive the connections across strands in the progression that are important for conceptual understanding. We suggest potential instructional strategies that may help students build organized and integrated knowledge structures to consolidate their understanding, ready them for new ideas in science, and help them construct understanding of emerging disciplines such as NSE, as well as traditional science disciplines. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 47:687–715, 2010