Are athletes burning out with passion?

Abstract

Passion is a strong motivational force towards an activity considered very important, possibly to the extent that the activity forms a part of an individual's identity. Two forms of passion, harmonious and obsessive, are thought to lead to different cognitive and affective responses. Although being passionate about sport appears to be important from a motivational perspective, it possibly also increases the risk for burnout, which is a negative consequence blamed partly on too much training and inadequate recovery. The question voiced in this study is whether harmonious passion and obsessive passion pose equal risks for burnout. Participants were 94 female and 164 male competitive athletes from 21 sports. The results, analysed using partial correlation and multivariate analyses of variance, showed that athletes with an obsessive passion scored higher on a burnout inventory than did harmoniously passionate athletes. Obsessively passionate athletes also scored higher on perceived stress and negative affect, and lower on positive affect. These findings support the assumption that even though the two forms of passion may be an integral part of elite sports, athletes scoring high on obsessive passion may be at greater risk of developing burnout than more harmoniously passionate athletes. Burning bright and burning out can thus be seen as two potential consequences for athletes driven by passion. Athletes and coaches who are aware of this may be better equipped to avoid the potential negative consequences associated with too much stress and too little recovery.     

On passion and sports fans: a look at football

The purpose of the present research was to test the applicability of the Dualistic Model of Passion (Vallerand et al., 2003) to being a sport (football) fan. Three studies provided support for this dualistic conceptualization of passion. Study 1 showed that harmonious passion was positively associated with adaptive behaviours (e.g. celebrate the team's victory), whereas obsessive passion was positively associated with maladaptive behaviours (e.g. risking losing one's job to go to a game). Study 2 used a short Passion Scale and showed that harmonious passion was positively related to the positive affective life of fans during the 2006 FIFA World Cup, psychological health (self-esteem and life satisfaction), and public displays of adaptive behaviours (e.g. celebrate the team's victory into the streets), whereas obsessive passion was predictive of maladaptive affective life (e.g. hating opposing teams' fans) and behaviours (e.g. mocking opposing teams' fans). Finally, Study 3 examined the role of obsessive passion as a predictor of partner's conflict that in turn undermined partner's relationship satisfaction. Overall, the present results provided support for the Dualistic Model of Passion. The conceptual and applied implications of the findings are discussed.     

Global self-esteem, goal achievement orientations, and self-determined behavioural regulations in a physical education setting

We examined a theoretical model of global self-esteem that incorporated constructs from achievement goal and self-determination theories. The model hypothesized that self-determined or autonomous motives would mediate the influence of achievement goal orientation on global self-esteem. The adapted version of the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (Mullan et al., 1997), the Perception of Success Questionnaire (Roberts & Balague, 1991), and Rosenberg's (1965) self-esteem scales were administered to 634 high school students aged 11 - 15 years. A structural equation model supported the hypotheses and demonstrated that autonomous motives mediated the effect of goal orientations on global self-esteem. The results suggest that generalized motivational orientations influence self-esteem by affecting autonomous motivation and is consistent with theory that suggests that experiences relating to intrinsic motivation are the mechanism by which global motivational orientations are translated into adaptive outcomes like self-esteem. The findings suggest that physical activity interventions that target autonomous motives in physical activity contexts are likely to enhance young people's general self-esteem.     

Trait self-esteem and claimed self-handicapping motives in sports situations

Abstract

We examined the relationship between physical self-esteem and claimed self-handicapping among athletes by taking motives into consideration. In Study 1, 99 athletes were asked to report their tendency to engage in claimed self-handicapping for self-protective and self-enhancement motives (trait measures). Low self-esteem athletes reported a higher tendency to engage in claimed self-handicapping for these two motives compared with high self-esteem athletes. Neither low nor high self-esteem athletes reported a preference for one motive over the other. In Study 2, 107 athletes participated in a test that was ostensibly designed to assess high physical abilities – and thus to encourage self-handicapping for self-enhancement motives (success-meaningful condition) – or to assess low physical abilities, and thus to encourage self-handicapping for self-protective motives (failure-meaningful condition). Before starting the test, athletes were given the opportunity to claim handicaps that could impair their performance. Low self-esteem athletes claimed more handicaps than high self-esteem athletes in both conditions. Findings suggest that low physical self-esteem athletes engage more in claimed handicapping regardless of motives, relative to high physical self-esteem athletes.     

Team-referent attributions among sport performers

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a team-referent attribution scale. Conducted over three studies, Study 1 modified items from McAuley, Duncan, and Russell's (1992) Causal Dimension Scale II by rewording items to reflect team attributions and adding one item per factor. This led to the development of a 16-item scale (Causal Dimension Scale-T, CDS-T). Study 2 tested competing models of attribution theory among a sample of 433 team sport players. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated strongest support for a four-factor model (robust comparative fit index = .961; root mean squared error of approximation = .054). Study 3 tested the predictive validity of the scale among a sample of 201 team players. Results indicated that winners reported more internal and stable attributions than losers. Further, performances perceived as successful were associated with stable attributions. The results of the study, therefore, suggest that the CDS-T provides a valid measure of team-referent attributions in sport.     

自我设限策略在体育运动中的运用及其对运动表现的影响

试图检验自我效能和自尊是否可以作为两种自我设限策略——声称式的和行为式的——预测指标,并且比较了两种策略和运动表现的关系。以体育学院篮球专业部分新生为研究对象,结果表明:声称式的自我设限策略和自尊显著负相关,而行为式的自我设限策略和自我效能显著负相关。运动表现和行为式的自我设限负相关,和声称式的自我设限不相关。研究结果表明两种自我设限策略和不同的影响因素相联系,并且对运动表现有不同的影响。     

Measurement Invariance of the Passion Scale Across Three Samples: An ESEM Approach

Sport and exercise psychology researchers rely on the Passion Scale to assess levels of harmonious and obsessive passion for many different types of activities (Vallerand, 2010). However, this practice assumes that items from the Passion Scale are interpreted with the same meaning across all activity types. Using exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), we tested this assumption by examining the invariance of scores from the Passion Scale across groups of recreational athletes/exercisers (N = 562), competitive athletes (N = 438), and sports fans (N = 256). We found that the ESEM analysis fit the data better than the more common independent clusters confirmatory factor analysis (ICM-CFA) approach and yielded lower correlations between harmonious and obsessive passion factors. Using ESEM, we found evidence of configural, weak, and partial strong invariance across the three groups. Evidence of partial strong invariance provides tentative support for comparing levels of harmonious and obsessive passion across activities.     

Team-Referent Attributions Among Sport Performers

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a team-referent attribution scale. Conducted over three studies, Study 1 modified items from McAuley, Duncan, and Russell's (1992) Causal Dimension Scale II by rewording items to reflect team attributions and adding one item per factor. This led to the development of a 16-item scale (Causal Dimension Scale-T, CDS-T). Study 2 tested competing models of attribution theory among a sample of 433 team sport players. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated strongest support for a four-factor model (robust comparative fit index = .961; root mean squared error of approximation = .054). Study 3 tested the predictive validity of the scale among a sample of 201 team players. Results indicated that winners reported more internal and stable attributions than losers. Further, performances perceived as successful were associated with stable attributions. The results of the study, therefore, suggest that the CDS-T provides a valid measure of team-referent attributions in sport.     

The CSGU: a measure of controllability, stability, globality, and universality attributions

This article reports initial evidence of construct validity for a four-factor measure of attributions assessing the dimensions of controllability, stability, globality, and universality (the CSGU). In Study 1, using confirmatory factor analysis, factors were confirmed across least successful and most successful conditions. In Study 2, following less successful performances, correlations supported hypothesized relationships between subscales of the CSGU and subscales of the CDSII (McAuley, Duncan, & Russell, 1992). In Study 3, following less successful performances, moderated hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that individuals have higher subsequent self-efficacy when they perceive causes of performance as controllable, and/or specific, and/or universal. An interaction for controllability and stability demonstrated that if causes are perceived as likely to recur, it is important to perceive that causes are controllable. Researchers are encouraged to use the CSGU to examine main and interactive effects of controllability and generalizability attributions upon outcomes such as self-efficacy, emotions, and performance.     

Governing indigenous recreation at a distance: a critical analysis of an after school active health intervention

Within the Canadian context, the physical activity levels of children and youth in the after school time period has become a source of public health concern. We argue that this concern is informed by broader public health crises, in particular the ‘global obesity epidemic’ and the closely related ‘global pandemic of physical inactivity', and that these so-called ‘crises’ operate as part of a discursive regime that serves to justify after school interventions aimed at increasing the physical activity practices of children and youth. Although the objectives of such interventions are seemingly well intentioned, we suggest that such interventions nonetheless harbor difficult to discern, but potentially pernicious consequences, for the communities in which they are implemented. We focus our attention on the place-specific effects of one Public Health Agency of Canada-funded after school physical activity intervention – After the School Bell Rings (ASBR) – that was implemented in the mostly Indigenous, northern community of Placid, Manitoba. Based on a critical analysis of the ASBR program itself, along with interviews and focus groups with children, parents and recreation providers (n?=?10) from the community of Placid, we contend that the ASBR serves to govern Indigenous recreation at a distance. We argue that when implemented in the place-specific context of Placid, the ASBR functions as part of a broader governmental assemblage composed of loosely connected discourses, institutions, socio-structural conditions and individuals that, when assembled, ultimately serve to govern geographically and culturally distinct communities. We conclude by suggesting that the objectives of broad-based health interventions, such as the goal of increasing after school physical activity levels, should not be universally implemented across diverse locales, but need to account for the diverse, place-specific priorities and needs of the communities into which they are implemented.     

Longitudinal examination of the exercise and self-esteem model in middle-aged women

This 2-year prospective study examined the exercise and self-esteem model in middle-aged women (N = 143) previously enrolled in a randomized controlled exercise trial. Across the 2-year period, increases in physical activity (PA) and self-efficacy and reductions in body mass index (BMI) were associated with improved subdomain self-perceptions relative to physical condition, and reductions in BMI were associated with improved subdomain self-perceptions relative to physical condition and body attractiveness. The effects of PA, self-efficacy, and BMI on changes in physical self-worth and global self-esteem were mediated by changes in self-perceptions relative to physical condition and body attractiveness. The results of this longitudinal analysis support the hierarchical and multidimensional structure of self-esteem and indicate that middle-aged women can enhance how they perceive their condition and body attractiveness by continued participation in physical activity, increasing their self-efficacy, and maintaining healthy BMI levels.     

Associations Among Physical Education,Activity-Related Healthy Lifestyle Practices,and Cardiorespiratory Fitness of Chinese Youth

Purpose: Physical education (PE) in school provides opportunities for physical activity (PA) engagement and reportedly results in improved health-related fitness. This study explored the underlying correlations between PE and activity-related healthy lifestyle practices with current level of cardiorespiratory fitness. Methods: A total of 13,138 students age 14 (boys = 7,094, 54.0%) in Grade 8 from the China National Assessment of Educational Quality - Physical Education & Health 2015 were included in this study. Two independent structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses were conducted to obtained sex-specific results. Data included the results of the 15-m progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run (PACER) and questionnaire data regarding PE curriculum implementation, learning and practice, perceived support from PE teachers, PE facilities, PE equipment, activity-related healthy lifestyle practices, habitual physical fitness, appropriate method of physical fitness, and breakfast eating habits. Structural equation modeling was applied to examine the associations between variables, controlling for socioeconomic status, the location of schools, and Body Mass Index. Results: There was a statistically significant relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and activity-related healthy lifestyle practices, which was somewhat positively impacted by skill learning and practice and perceived support from PE teachers. Together, the boy’s model explained 21.8% of the variance in cardiorespiratory fitness, whereas the girl’s model explained 15.9%. Conclusions: A well-organized PE program is related to students’ activity-related healthy lifestyle practices, and consequently provides an improvement to cardiorespiratory fitness.     

A prospective study on changes of cognitions, interpersonal influences, and physical activity in Taiwanese youth

The decline of physical activity during adolescence is not well understood. This prospective study followed 969 Taiwanese students from eighth to ninth grade and examined their physical activity-related cognitions, interpersonal influences, and behavior of physical activity across the grade transition. Gender differences were found in the effects of the grade transition on physical activity and its related cognitions. The correlation coefficients showed moderate tracking for physical activity, cognitions, and interpersonal influences for both genders. The results also indicated that cognitions are more stable than behavior. The present study provides evidence of the decline in physical activity in Taiwanese youth across the grade transition as well as gender differences in the variables cognitions and interpersonal influences.     

Testing the Youth Physical Activity Promotion Model: Fatness and Fitness as Enabling Factors

As the prevalence of childhood obesity increases, it is important to examine possible differences in psychosocial correlates of physical activity between normal weight and overweight children. The study examined fatness (weight status) and (aerobic) fitness as Enabling factors related to youth physical activity within the Youth Physical Activity Promotion Model (YPAP). Youth ages 9–11 years (N = 1,103) completed the Children’s Physical Activity Correlates survey and the Children’s Physical Activity Questionnaire. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the relationships among variables. Overweight children reported lower scores on global self-esteem, perceived competence, attraction to physical activity, and parental influence (Cohen’s d ranging from .23 to .45 for girls; Cohen’s d ranging from .31 to .43 for boys). Weight status showed a small positive direct effect on physical activity (standardized path coefficient = .11), but did not show effects on psychosocial correlates (p > .05). Furthermore, aerobic fitness proved to be a stronger Enabling factor (standardized path coefficient = .26) than weight status within the YPAP model. Future research using the YPAP model may extend its utility as an evaluation framework for youth physical activity intervention studies.     

Relationships between attributions and emotions in a laboratory-based sporting contest.

A series of one-vs-one fencing contests was staged in a laboratory to investigate the nature and extent of relationships between attributions and emotions. The experimenter had full control over the outcome and created a substantial defeat for one subject. A pre-contest measure of the importance of winning was obtained via a questionnaire. After the contest, questionnaire ratings of 12 attributions for outcome (winning/losing), 28 adjectives describing emotions, and a rating of satisfaction with performance were elicited. Factor analysis of emotion ratings revealed three factors of 'positive self-esteem', 'depression-frustration' and 'intropunitiveness'. Relationships between emotion factors and attributions involved primarily internal attributions. Multiple regression analyses showed that positive self-esteem for winners was best predicted by performance satisfaction, outcome importance and attributions, whereas depression-frustration was predicted only by attributions. For losers, positive self-esteem was predicted from attributions. These results suggest that attributions and emotions are related after sports competition but that non-attribution variables are also important predictors of sport-related emotion.     

Differences between experienced and inexperienced teachers' planning decisions, interactions, student engagement, and instructional climate

This study focused on the differences between experienced and inexperienced physical education teachers' approaches to planning, low inference indicators of teaching behavior during instruction, and global variables from the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study. It was found experienced teachers asked many more questions before they began planning than did inexperienced teachers. Experienced teachers' plans reflected a concern about contingencies that might arise during instruction, whereas inexperienced teachers' plans did not. Interaction analysis and codings of student engagement showed marked differences between experienced and inexperienced teachers. Judging the qualities of experienced and inexperienced teachers also showed important differences. These sources of data are interrelated and give a vivid picture of how experienced and inexperienced teachers differ in accomplishment of instruction. The findings are discussed in terms of what they may mean for teacher development programs.     

An examination of psychosocial variables moderating the relationship between life stress and injury time-loss among athletes of a high standard

Based on Williams and Andersen's model of stress and athletic injury, six psychosocial variables were assessed as possible moderators of the relationship between life stress and injury among 121 athletes (65 males, 56 females) competing in a variety of sports at state, national or international level. No significant effects of the sex of the participants were evident. Correlational analyses revealed moderator effects of several variables. Specifically, dispositional optimism and hardiness were related to decreased injury time-loss in athletes when positive life change increased, and global self-esteem was associated with decreased injury time-loss when both negative life change and total life change increased. The results indicate that athletes with more optimism, hardiness or global self-esteem may cope more effectively with life change stress, resulting in reduced injury vulnerability and recovery rates.     

An examination of psychosocial variables moderating the relationship between life stress and injury time-loss among athletes of a high standard

Based on Williams and Andersen's model of stress and athletic injury, six psychosocial variables were assessed as possible moderators of the relationship between life stress and injury among 121 athletes (65 males, 56 females) competing in a variety of sports at state, national or international level. No significant effects of the sex of the participants were evident. Correlational analyses revealed moderator effects of several variables. Specifically, dispositional optimism and hardiness were related to decreased injury time-loss in athletes when positive life change increased, and global self-esteem was associated with decreased injury time-loss when both negative life change and total life change increased. The results indicate that athletes with more optimism, hardiness or global self-esteem may cope more effectively with life change stress, resulting in reduced injury vulnerability and recovery rates.     

Nutrition for endurance sports: marathon, triathlon, and road cycling

Endurance sports are increasing in popularity and athletes at all levels are looking for ways to optimize their performance by training and nutrition. For endurance exercise lasting 30 min or more, the most likely contributors to fatigue are dehydration and carbohydrate depletion, whereas gastrointestinal problems, hyperthermia, and hyponatraemia can reduce endurance exercise performance and are potentially health threatening, especially in longer events (>4 h). Although high muscle glycogen concentrations at the start may be beneficial for endurance exercise, this does not necessarily have to be achieved by the traditional supercompensation protocol. An individualized nutritional strategy can be developed that aims to deliver carbohydrate to the working muscle at a rate that is dependent on the absolute exercise intensity as well as the duration of the event. Endurance athletes should attempt to minimize dehydration and limit body mass losses through sweating to 2-3% of body mass. Gastrointestinal problems occur frequently, especially in long-distance races. Problems seem to be highly individual and perhaps genetically determined but may also be related to the intake of highly concentrated carbohydrate solutions, hyperosmotic drinks, as well as the intake of fibre, fat, and protein. Hyponatraemia has occasionally been reported, especially among slower competitors with very high intakes of water or other low sodium drinks. Here I provide a comprehensive overview of recent research findings and suggest several new guidelines for the endurance athlete on the basis of this. These guidelines are more detailed and allow a more individualized approach.     

基于“Choking”实验范式的“自我批判”中介效应验证

“自我批判”指个体为了保护自尊而朝向规避负面可能性结果的心理倾向,反映了个体高标准的“自我关注”。运用飞镖任务的“Choking”实验范式,把“自我批判”作为内源性中介变量,观察其在压力下运动表现的作用解释机制。对50名大学生运动员进行“自我批判”的人格测试,并分别在无压力和压力条件下完成飞镖投掷任务的测试,所得数据通过SPSS 24.0和Process 3.0进行统计分析。研究发现,“自我批判”倾向的被试在压力条件下表现了“自我关注”的认知压力(β=0.50,P<0.001);同时,其“Choking”表现也随之增加(β=0.35,P<0.01)。因此,“自我批判”作为“Choking”的内源性诱因,具有部分的中介作用机制解释,其解释变异的效应占25%。