Methodological issues associated with longitudinal research: Findings from the Leuven Longitudinal Study on Lifestyle,Fitness and Health (1969 – 2004)

Abstract

Longitudinal studies provide unique opportunities but are also faced with several limitations. The purpose of this study was to document three of these issues (“imperfect” design, evolution of data collection methods, representativeness) by means of the Leuven Longitudinal Study on Lifestyle, Fitness and Health (LLSLFH). The LLSLFH (1969 – 2004) comprises observations on males between 12 and 18 years and at 30, 35, 40, and 47 years, and on females at 16 and 40 years. In the most recent phase of the study, spouses and offspring were also included. The different phases and evolving research questions throughout the LLSLFH required an appropriate adaptation of the research design. The associated evolution of data collection methods largely reflects the changing ideas about physical fitness, body composition, and physical activity, the continuing search for new and better measurement techniques, and the need for adaptations with age. Ongoing study participants are representative in terms of body composition and, except for adolescence in males, also physical activity. No straightforward answer can be given concerning physical fitness. In both sexes, socio-economic status is above average. When informed about the possible “pitfalls” of longitudinal research in advance, several measures could be taken to prevent or limit them as much as possible.     

中国体质研究的进程与发展趋势

结合我国古代医学、现代医学、人类学和生物学等学科的理论,采用专家访谈、文献调研等方法,回顾我国体质学的由来、理论基础和发展历程,并重点论述当前我国体质研究的不足以及对未来体质学发展的思考。研究认为,中国"体质"一词最早来源于《黄帝内经》,"形神合一"是我国古代体质观的精华。随着历史的演变和科学文化的发展,体质的概念也在不断地完善和充实。目前公认的观点是,体质是人体的质量,是在遗传性和获得性的基础上表现出来的人体形态结构、生理功能和心理因素等综合的、相对稳定的特征。开始于20世纪70年代末的"中国青少年儿童身体形态、机能和素质的研究"。成熟于"中国国民体质监测系统"的建立。2000年在我国开展了幼儿(3~6岁)、儿童青少年(7~19岁)、成年(20~59岁)和老年(60~69岁)人群的体质监测工作。标志着体质研究已上升为我国体育科学界最为活跃的研究领域之一。我国的体质研究应该尽快提升体质测量与评价的多样性和多层次化,以便科学和便捷地指导国民进行体育健身。     

体适能在高职院校体育课程改革中的研究

机体对外界环境进行有效的反应就是体适能。现在,国际上健身一个非常重要的指标就是体适能。为了在平常的生活和学习中及工作中,尽可能让效率得到有效提升,就要对健康的体适能进行追求,只有这样,健康才能得到促进,疾病才能得到有效的预防。本文运用逻辑推理和文献资料的研究方法,对体适能在高职院校体育课程改革进行探讨。     

Deleterious effects of obesity on physical fitness in pre-pubertal children

The prevalence of obesity in children has increased dramatically during the past decades in Europe and understanding physical fitness and its components in children is critical to design and implement effective interventions. The objective of the present study was to analyse the association between physical fitness (aerobic, speed, agility, power, flexibility and balance) and body mass index (BMI) in pre-pubertal children. A total of 2411 healthy schoolchildren (7–11 years) participated in this study. Anthropometric characteristics and body composition were assessed by skinfold thickness. Physical fitness was measured by nine physical fitness tests: endurance running, 20 m running speed, agility, handgrip strength, standing long jump and squat jump, sit and reach, medicine ball forward throw and static balance. No relevant differences were observed between boys and girls regarding anthropometric characteristics, body composition and physical fitness. However, overweight and obese children showed significantly lower physical fitness levels in endurance running, speed and agility (mean: +18.8, +5.5 and +14.5% of time to complete tasks, respectively), lower limb power normalised to body mass (?23.3%) and balance tests (number of falls: +165.5%) than their normal weight counterparts. On the other hand, obesity did not affect handgrip, throwing and flexibility. In conclusion, increased BMI was associated with lower performance capabilities limiting proper motor skill development, which directly affects the ability of children to take on sports skills. Actions undertaken to promote children's wellness and fitness should be prioritised and introduced early in life with the aim of enhancing physical fitness as well as preventing overweight and obesity.     

对体质与健康体适能测试指标的比较启示

近年我国对体适能的研究成为热潮,其中以健康体适能测试作为评价身体健康标准与以体质测试作为评价标准成为当前我国对国民健康评定的两股主流势力。通过对体质测试指标与健康体适能的测试指标进行比较分析,认为体质的测试指标与健康体适能的测试指标都不能体现"完全健康"的范畴;在身体健康测试指标中,健康体适能相对于体质更能准确、有效的反映人体的健康状况;但也必须加入心理健康、社会健康、情绪健康、精神健康的测试指标,健康体适能才能更好的体现人体的"完全健康"水平。     

现行女子体操二级运动员规定动作的特点与价值研究

文章对2006年版和1980年版《体操等级运动员规定动作及评分细则》中《女子二级规定动作》的编排价值进行了比较,研究结果显示:与1980年版相比,2006年版《女子二级规定动作》的难度降低,内容更加简洁流畅,突出了项目的特点,具有发展身体素质及基本活动能力、改善机能状况、塑造健美体型、培养坚强的意志品质等健身价值,并具有项目选择自主性高、通级标准有所降低、取消了年龄限制、编排更趋合理性、具有健身特征等特点。     

有氧健身操训练对中年肥胖女性体成分影响的研究

本研究旨在利用我部现有的科研力量和人员技术优势,通过对40多名在健身俱乐部进行有氧健身操锻炼的年龄在30-45岁女性肥胖(超过标准体重20-30)者进行为期3个月的有氧健身操锻炼,然后对锻炼前后的腰臀比(WHR)和体重指数(BMI)进行测量,即有氧健身操训练对中年肥胖女性体成分影响的研究,评价其减肥效果,结合膳食指导和健康咨询,逐步修正健身操练习者的运动量,使健身练习者达到降重不降水,降脂增肌的最佳减肥效果,确保减肥过程的安全、有效。     

A methodological approach to short-term tracking of youth physical fitness: the Oporto Growth,Health and Performance Study

In this paper, three different statistical approaches were used to investigate short-term tracking of cardiorespiratory and performance-related physical fitness among adolescents. Data were obtained from the Oporto Growth, Health and Performance Study and comprised 1203 adolescents (549 girls) divided into two age cohorts (10–12 and 12–14 years) followed for three consecutive years, with annual assessment. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed with 1-mile run/walk test; 50-yard dash, standing long jump, handgrip, and shuttle run test were used to rate performance-related physical fitness. Tracking was expressed in three different ways: auto-correlations, multilevel modelling with crude and adjusted model (for biological maturation, body mass index, and physical activity), and Cohen’s Kappa (κ) computed in IBM SPSS 20.0, HLM 7.01 and Longitudinal Data Analysis software, respectively. Tracking of physical fitness components was (1) moderate-to-high when described by auto-correlations; (2) low-to-moderate when crude and adjusted models were used; and (3) low according to Cohen’s Kappa (κ). These results demonstrate that when describing tracking, different methods should be considered since they provide distinct and more comprehensive views about physical fitness stability patterns.     

‘Getting fit basically just means,like, nonfat’: children's lessons in fitness and fatness

Current concerns about a childhood obesity crisis and children's physical activity levels have combined to justify fitness lessons as a physical education practice in New Zealand primary (elementary) schools. Researchers focused on children's understandings of fitness lessons argue that they construct fitness as a quest for an ‘ideal’ (skinny or muscular) body. The conflation of fitness with thinness, however, is complex and problematic. In this paper, we draw from research conducted with a class of primary school children in New Zealand. Drawing on the theoretical tools of Foucault and utilizing a visual methods approach, we examine how children experience school fitness lessons and construct notions of fitness, health and body. The children's responses illustrated that obesity discourses and body pedagogies ‘collided’ in a way that shaped understandings of fitness lessons in ways inextricably connected with the avoidance of being fat. The children assumed that fitness lessons increased fitness and that being fit was demonstrated by a ‘correct’ corporeal appearance. We argue that body pedagogies inside and outside the school gates shape children's ideas about the body in ways which exclude other understandings of bodies, health, and physical activity.     

导引术对大学生健身理念的启示

文章运用文献资料法和对比分析法,发现近年来大学生学习和就业等压力大及身体运动不足等原因,从而导致身体素质逐年下降。通过对中国传统导引术的理论研究与分析,探索其对大学生的身体发展产生的良好影响,为大学生提供优质的健身理念,以促进大学生的身体健康。     

网球专项体能训练研究的综述

运用文献资料法和逻辑分析法对近十年网球体能训练理论相关论文进行综述,结果发现,中国网球体能训练理论研究起步较晚,取得科研立项的较少;网球相关体能训练论文虽多,但整体科研质量有待提高;目前的体能训练研究多集中在身体形态、技能和素质方面,对网球体能指标体系、体能训练结构模型及体能水平的评价研究尚不多见。因此,体能训练要加大安排体能训练的比例,根据网球专项特征科学实施理论素质、速度素质和耐力素质训练;混合供能训练并根据赛制特点进行以赛促练。     

福建省成年人体质现状及特点

通过对福建省9个地市、5种职业,10866名18～60岁的成年男女的形态、机能、素质等多项指标的测试及分析,了解各年龄段的体质现状。结果表明,福建省成年男女体质达到《中国成年人体质测定标准》合格级以上人数分别占总人数的82％和84％。男女体质状况均在40岁后明显下降。男女各年龄段的平均体重均低于全国成年男女。脑力劳动者的体质优于体力劳动者。从事商业及服务业的体力劳动者体质状况最差。青年人的台阶指数低于中年人。     

Physical fitness of adults with an intellectual disability: a 13-year follow-up study

The purpose of this study was to describe the change in physical fitness of middle-aged adults with an intellectual disability over a period of 13 years. Participants were 32 adults who worked in a supported work environment in Montreal and had been participants in a physical fitness study in 1983. Using the Canadian Standardized Test of Fitness, the participants were evaluated for cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition. A home visit prior to the testing session refamiliarized the participants with the test procedures. Two forms of analysis were used to describe the change in fitness over 13 years. First, a 2 x 2 (Group x Time) analysis of variance for each dependent variable assessed change over time. Second, effect sizes were calculated to measure the magnitude of change in fitness over the 13-year period in comparison to those without an intellectual disability. As expected, the physical fitness levels of the participants were low when compared to those without a disability and declined over the 13 years. In addition, the magnitude of change over the 13 years, as compared to those without a disability, was greater for male and female participants for body mass index and percentage of body fat and for female participants for cardiovascular endurance and sit-ups. It appears that adults with an intellectual disability may be particularly at risk for declining health associated with aging and low physical fitness.     

Effects of 6-month soccer and traditional physical activity programmes on body composition,cardiometabolic risk factors,inflammatory, oxidative stress markers and cardiorespiratory fitness in obese boys

Physical activity is important in obesity prevention, but the effectiveness of different physical activity modalities remains to be determined among children. The main purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a 6-month soccer programme and a traditional physical activity programme on changes in body composition, cardiometabolic risk factors, inflammatory and oxidative markers, cardiorespiratory fitness and perceived psychological status in obese boys. Eighty-eight boys (8–12 years; BMI > +2 standard deviations of WHO reference values) participated in one of three groups: soccer, traditional activity and control. Soccer and traditional activity programmes involved 3 sessions per week for 60–90 min at an average intensity of 70–80% of maximal heart rate. Control group participated in activities of normal daily living. All boys participated in school physical education, two sessions per week of 45–90-min. Measurements were taken at baseline and after 6 months, and included body size and composition, cardiometabolic risk factors, inflammatory and oxidative markers, cardiorespiratory fitness and perceived psychological status. Physical activity and dietary intake were assessed before and immediately following the intervention. The three groups had similar characteristics at baseline. After 6 months, both intervention groups had significantly lower relative fatness (% fat), waist circumference and total cholesterol, and higher cardiorespiratory fitness, self-esteem, perceived physical competence and attraction to physical activity compared with control group. In conclusion, physical activity interventions over 6 months positively influenced several indicators of health status among obese boys. The results also suggested that soccer has the potential as an effective tool for the prevention and reduction of childhood obesity and associated consequences.     

Mediating effects of resistance training skill competency on health-related fitness and physical activity: the ATLAS cluster randomised controlled trial

The purpose of this study was to examine the mediating effect of resistance training skill competency on percentage of body fat, muscular fitness and physical activity among a sample of adolescent boys participating in a school-based obesity prevention intervention. Participants were 361 adolescent boys taking part in the Active Teen Leaders Avoiding Screen-time (ATLAS) cluster randomised controlled trial: a school-based program targeting the health behaviours of economically disadvantaged adolescent males considered “at-risk” of obesity. Body fat percentage (bioelectrical impedance), muscular fitness (hand grip dynamometry and push-ups), physical activity (accelerometry) and resistance training skill competency were assessed at baseline and post-intervention (i.e., 8 months). Three separate multi-level mediation models were analysed to investigate the potential mediating effects of resistance training skill competency on each of the study outcomes using a product-of-coefficients test. Analyses followed the intention-to-treat principle. The intervention had a significant impact on the resistance training skill competency of the boys, and improvements in skill competency significantly mediated the effect of the intervention on percentage of body fat and the combined muscular fitness score. No significant mediated effects were found for physical activity. Improving resistance training skill competency may be an effective strategy for achieving improvements in body composition and muscular fitness in adolescent boys.     

大学生体质与健康状况的追踪调查研究

本文采用文献资料法、数理统计法,对目前02级3400名男女大学生的体质与健康状况进行了连续四年的追踪调查与研究,结果表明：（1）男、女大学生进入大学后身高和体重都有一定程度的增长但已趋于平缓;（2）男、女大学生体质指数分布曲线呈“细峰右尾”型;（3）男、女大学生的身体机能指标（肺活量/体重指数）以及身体素质变化趋势为先上升后略有下降。     

苏北农村男性居民身体成分与年龄变化规律的研究

运用文献资料、实验比较等研究方法,对与苏北农村男性居民体质健康状况非常密切的身体成分随着年龄增长而发生变化情况进行研究,探讨其身体脂肪含量的分布和变化规律。研究表明,苏北农村男性居民的体脂含量随年龄的增长而增大,并呈阶段性变化。成年后,脂肪增长是体重增长的主要成分,约占69%。身体脂肪的分布具有明显的增龄性变化,主要是向心性聚集,全身脂肪55%左右含量聚集在身体的躯干部位。     

SOM和PCA对体质健康数据的模式识别及可视化分析——以学生体质地域特征为视角

随着国家学生体质健康数据量的剧增,体质健康的大数据分析及可视化成为体质研究的重要内容。自组织特征映射网络（Self-Organizing Map,SOM）方法和主成分分析（Principal Component Analysis,PCA）法对处理高维海量数据具有独特优势及可视化特点,从而成为大数据模式识别和 可视化分析的重要工具。以山西某高校6 531名学生体质健康数据为例,以学生体质地域差异为视角,用SOM方法定性识别了学生体质健康的地域 特征,用可视化PCA方法分析学生体质健康的影响因子及解释因子的地域特征。结论：SOM和PCA方法可用于体质健康数据模式识别和可视化分 析。SOM和PCA的实例分析揭示了学生体质的地域特征,分析显示,体重和BMI 指标具有地域一致性,是影响学生体质健康的最重要因素,也是学 生体质健康现状的主要解释变量;女生体质健康的地域差异相对较大,男生体质健康的地域差异较小;可视化PCA结果还揭示了,学生体质健康指 标的聚类特征也具有地域一致性。文章从实证角度论证了SOM和PCA方法在体质健康数据模式识别和可视化分析中的应用,也为体质类大数据分 析提供了初步思路。     

Physical Fitness in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder

The protective effects of physical activity and fitness on cardiovascular health have clearly been shown among normally developed children. However, data are currently lacking pertaining to children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). The purpose of this study was to examine differences in fitness measures, body composition, and physical activity among children with and without DCD. A cross-sectional design was implemented examining 261 children (118 girls, 143 boys) ages 4–12 years (mean age 7.8 ± 1.9 years). Children were categorized as having DCD if they scored less than or equal to the 5th percentile (n = 71) or between the 6th and the 15th percentile (n = 52) on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC; Henderson & Sugden, 1992). The typically developing children had scores between the 16th and the 50th percentile (n = 106) or above the 50th percentile (n = 32) on the MABC. The age-related body mass index was used to characterize body composition. Physical fitness was assessed with a 6-min run, 20-m sprint, jump-and-reach test, medicine ball throw, curl-ups, and sit-and-reach test. Physical activity was estimated with a questionnaire. The percentage of overweight and obese children ages 10–12 years were significantly higher in the DCD groups (severe: 50%, moderate: 23.1%) than in the typically developing groups (medium: 5.6%, high: 0%; p < .05). Significant interactions (MABC x Age Group) were found for the fitness tests (p values < .05), except flexibility; whereby specifically, compared to the children in the typically developing groups children in the DCD groups ages 4–6 years achieved significantly worse results for the 20-m sprint, and children of the DCD groups ages 10–12 years achieved significantly worse results for the 6-min run, jump-and-reach test, and medicine ball throw. The study demonstrates poorer performance in fitness tests with high demands on coordination in children with DCD compared to their typically developing peers. Furthermore, the differences in fitness increased with age between children in the DCD groups versus the typically developing groups.     

Physical fitness in children with developmental coordination disorder

The protective effects of physical activity and fitness on cardiovascular health have clearly been shown among normally developed children. However data are currently lacking pertaining to children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). The purpose of this study was to examine differences in fitness measures, body composition, and physical activity among children with and without DCD. A cross-sectional design was implemented examining 261 children (118 girls, 143 boys) ages 4-12 years (mean age 7.8 +/- 1.9 years). Children were categorized as having DCD if they scored less than or equal to the 5th percentile (n=71) or between the 6th and the 15th percentile (n=5) on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC; Henderson & Sugden, 1992). The typically developing children had scores between the 16th and the 50th percentile (n=16) or above the 50th percentile (n=3) on the MABC. The age-related body mass index was used to characterize body composition. Physical fitness was assessed with a 6-min run, 20-m sprint, jump-and-reach test, medicine ball throw, curl-ups, and sit-and-reach test. Physical activity was estimated with a questionnaire. The percentage of overweight and obese children ages 10-12 years were significantly higher in the DCD groups (severe: 50%, moderate: 23.1%) than in the typically developing groups (medium: 5.6%, high: 0%; p < .05). Significant interactions (MABC x Age Group) were found for the fitness tests (p values < .05), except flexibility; whereby specifically, compared to the children in the typically developing groups children in the DCD groups ages 4-6 years achieved significantly worse results for the 20-m sprint, and children of the DCD groups ages 10-12 years achieved significantly worse results for the 6-min run, jump-and-reach test, and medicine ball throw. The study demonstrates poorer performance in fitness tests with high demands on coordination in children with DCD compared to their typically developing peers. Furthermore, the differences in fitness increased with age between children in the DCD groups versus the typically developing groups.