The determinants of private tutoring participation and attendant expenditures in Korea

With the growing worldwide prevalence of private tutoring, the causes and effects of private tutoring have been drawing increasing attention both academically and policy wise. This study intends to draw policy implications by investigating the determinants of private tutoring participation of school-aged children and expenditures per child for such private tutoring. The logistic regression (for participation), OLS, and F.E. panel models (for expenditures) were adopted for the analysis, using the Korean panel data. The empirical findings indicate that private tutoring for children—both in terms of participation and expenditures—has a positive correlation with the mother’s educational attainment (preference effect), a negative correlation with the mother’s employment status (time constraint effect), and a positive correlation with the household income (income effect).     

The determinants and impact of private tutoring classes in Vietnam

Private tutoring is a widespread phenomenon in many developing countries, including Vietnam. Using the Vietnam Living Standards Surveys 1997–1998 and 1992–1993 for analysis, this paper finds evidence that private tutoring in Vietnam is a necessity in the household budget for both primary students and lower secondary students, and the trend to attend private tutoring is stronger at higher education levels. There is no evidence of gender discrimination in expenditure on private tutoring. Ethnic minority students spend less on private tutoring at the primary level but not at the lower secondary level, as do students living in rural areas. However, spending on private tutoring would fall significantly if the qualifications of primary school teachers are increased. Private tutoring is found to have significant impact on a student's academic performance, but the influence is larger for lower secondary students. This paper contributes to the available estimation techniques by extending the simultaneous Tobit model of Amemiya [(1974). Multivariate regression and simultaneous equation models when the dependent variables are truncated normal. Econometrica, 42(6), 999–1012] to a joint Tobit-ordered probit econometric model to address the possible endogeneity of household spending on private tutoring.     

Regulating private tutoring consumption in Korea: Lessons from another failure

The proliferation of private tutoring is a widespread phenomenon, Korea being one the most notable examples. Indeed, successive Korean governments have attempted to limit private tutoring consumption for more than four decades. In 2006, state education authorities imposed a restriction on operating hours of hagwon (private tutoring academies) in an attempt at reducing the economic and time resources spent on private tutoring. Since then, some provincial authorities have modified the curfew on hagwon. We take advantage of these policy shifts to identify average treatment effects taking a difference-in-differences approach. Our findings suggest that enforcing the curfew did not generate a significant reduction in the hours and resources spent on private tutoring, our results being heterogeneous by school level and socioeconomic status. Demand for private tutoring seems to be especially inelastic for high school students, who increased their consumption of alternative forms of private tutoring. As the consumption of private tutoring is positively correlated with academic performance and socioeconomic status, strengthening the curfew may have a negative effect on the equality of educational opportunities.     

Differentiated demand for private supplementary tutoring: Patterns and implications in Hong Kong secondary education

A growing number of students around the world receive private tutoring in academic subjects. Such tutoring is widely called shadow education because it mimics regular schooling as the school sector grows, so does the shadow; and as the curriculum in the school changes, so does the curriculum in the shadow. Private tutoring has long been a significant phenomenon in East Asia, but has not received adequate research attention.This paper focuses on private tutoring in Hong Kong. It draws on data collected through questionnaires from students in Grades 9 and 12, and analyzes the factors which shape the demand for private tutoring. The paper highlights the influence of school, family and individual factors on students’ demand, and reports on students’ declared reasons for taking private tutoring. It commences with a broad comparative picture, and concludes by showing what the Hong Kong data add to wider conceptual understanding.     

A cross-national analysis of the student- and school-level factors affecting the demand for private tutoring

Private tutoring has become a worldwide phenomenon, yet there is little empirical evidence for the main factors leading the demand for private tutoring across nations. Using data from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study of 2003, this study classified the countries into four different groups according to the proportion of student participation in private tutoring and student achievement. Then, the study explored student- and school-level factors influencing the demand for private tutoring. From the HGLM analysis, the results revealed that the demand for private tutoring in Korea and Taiwan, which have higher participation rates in private tutoring and high-school-quality levels, is mostly explained by student-level variables (educational aspirations, instrumental motivation, self-confidence, and father’s education) and school context variables (the community size and school SES). Meanwhile, the demand for private tutoring in the Philippines and Romania, both of which have high incidences of private tutoring and low-school-quality levels, varies widely among schools, and many of the school process variables (e.g., the use of remedial classes, amount of school homework, frequency of tests, and the use of grouping by ability) account for the relationships with private tutoring.     

School factors underlying demand for private supplementary tutoring in English: urban and rural variations in Bangladesh

Private supplementary tutoring has long existed in Bangladesh, as elsewhere in the world, but in recent decades has become much more visible. Much tutoring “shadows” or reproduces formal schooling as fee-based academic teaching outside school hours. This paper focuses on school factors that shape demand for private supplementary tutoring in English at the secondary level, drawing on data gained from both quantitative and qualitative methods. The paper is especially concerned with urban and rural variations, noting that rates of tutoring are greater in urban areas but that many factors converge to create similarities. Private tutoring in English is highly demanded because English is a compulsory course; and in addition to being a subject in its own right, it assists in the learning of other subjects. While private tutoring may support the academic learning of some pupils, it also has problematic dimensions. As such, the spread of tutoring across urban and rural areas is not necessarily to be welcomed.     

浅谈韩国与朝鲜之间的国际私法问题

近年来韩国与朝鲜之间的交流日渐频繁,不管是观光旅游业方面,还是经济贸易方面的交流都很活跃。随着韩国和朝鲜的交流的增加,各种法律问题也随之增加了。韩国与朝鲜是两个主权国家,这些问题都在国际私法的范围之内。     

Expansion and effectiveness of private tutoring

Private paid tutoring is one of the most common approaches of remedial instruction to improve school performance of poorly performing pupils. The expansion of private tutoring was affirmed in a study with 904 pupils in Luxembourg. 23% of the participants reported that they receive tutoring at present, mainly in the subject matter of Mathematics. Theoretical considerations suggest the effectiveness of private tutoring in promoting school performance by an improvement in cognitive and motivational variables and a higher amount of time spent on task. However, appropriate evaluation studies are lacking. In an empirical study the effectiveness of tutoring is evaluated in a prepost-control-group-design. One group (N=122) received private tutoring over a period of nine months and was compared to a non-tutoring control group (N=122). These results indicate that receiving tutoring leads to a larger improvement in school performance and motivational variables. Directions for further research and practical implications are discussed.     

Demand intensity, market parameters and policy responses towards demand and supply of private supplementary tutoring in China

Based on some longitudinal studies of private tutoring in twelve cities, towns, municipalities and provinces of China, the paper endeavours to depict demand intensity, articulate market parameters and reflect on policy responses towards the demand-supply mechanism of the vast shadowy educational phenomena at primary and secondary levels. Such educational phenomena are so hidden that there is a complete lack of official statistical figures in measuring the full scale of tutoring and identifying tutors in some cases. In Hong Kong and Macao, parents and their schooling children take up responsibilities to consume various types of tutoring without state intervention into quality assurance. In Mainland China, local ministries of education prohibit home tutoring delivered by daytime teachers to their daytime students whilst take a laissez-faire approach towards mass tutorials that run in private business sphere. Lastly, a multi-level societal movement framework is recommended with strategic action plans in school practitioners’ and policy-makers’ perspectives for effectively monitoring or hampering the growth of such shadowy educational phenomena in China.     

Discursive practices of private online tutoring websites in Russia

A recent development in English teaching in Russia is the emergence of private online language-tutoring schools, which offer one-on-one lessons by means of audio/videoconferencing. It remains unclear: (1) how these new providers of educational services are presenting themselves to the potential learners; (2) what ideology they tend to drawn on and (3) whether there is sufficient similarity to conceptualise these websites as exemplars of the same genre. This paper employs the tools of critical discourse analysis (CDA), Genre Theory and Appraisal within the Systemic Functional Linguistics to study the language of 17 websites of private online language schools. The study aims to investigate whether the websites exhibit similar discourse and ideology and whether they might belong to the same ‘genre prototype’. The analysis reveals a considerable thematic, structural and rhetorical similarity between the websites and a high presence of neoliberal ideology.     

The impact of after-school programs on educational equality and private tutoring expenses

The purpose of this study was to examine how the implementation of after-school programs in Korea’s public schools is related to educational equality and private tutoring expenses. The analyzed data was from the Survey on the Status of Private Tutoring and the Study of the Policy Measures to Reduce Private Tutoring Expenses conducted by KEDI (Korea Education Development Institute) in (International conference for exploring the ways to activate the after-school program, KEDI, Seoul, 2007). The Chi-square test was employed to investigate (a) the relationship between after-school participation and family income and residential location of students (b) the association between after-school engagement and the reduction in private tutoring expenses. The study found that: (a) in general, low-income and rural students participated more than higher income and urban peers in after-school programs and (b) after-school participation was generally negatively associated with private tutoring engagement and the impact of after-school participation on the reduction in private tutoring expenses was stronger for low-income students in elementary and high schools and rural students in high schools. The overall findings provide further research issue regarding whether after-school programs can help foster educational equality by offering more opportunities for learning and achievement improvement for disadvantaged students. The results also imply the potential of after-school programs in reducing private tutoring expenses, particularly for low-income families.     

国内课外补习研究回顾与展望

课外补习在国外被称为“影子教育（shadow education）”。国内有研究者将其称为“择教”,是与“择校”并列的教育选择形式之一。国内的课外补习研究主要是从课外补习的概念、成因、现状、影响和政策启示等方面展开的。未来该领域需要加强基础性理论研究、实证研究、比较研究等。     

Impacts of urban economic factors on private tutoring industry

This paper investigates both supply (the number of employees in the PT industry and the number of PT institutions) and demand (the number of middle and high school students, grade 7?C12). Panel data are used for this research, making it possible to analyze market growth over time since it contains both cross-sectional and time-series information. Also this research sheds light on regional differences (urban socio-economic factors) which influence the growth of the PT market. Fixed effects and random effects regression models are developed to analyze the panel data. The purpose of this study is to analyze whether the changes in the demand for PT affect the growth of PT market between 2001 and 2006 in 25 gu (borough) of Seoul. Urban economic and industrial structures and income were controlled because they are known to influence the PT market along with demand for PT.     

The Hottest Star in South Korea

If you ask about the hottest star in South Korea this year, you will certainly hear the name Rain. The 22-year-old singer is powerful and energetic on stage. His dances and voice are great! On December 18, Rain and other Korean stars, including Baby V.O.X and As One, amazed their fans at the concert "Night of Love" in Beijing. "I love his small eyes and good build(体格)," said Hanna Kim, 12, a Korean girl who studies in China. "He's a nice person."R ain s real nam e is Jung Ji H oon(…     

Private tutoring and mass schooling in East Asia: reflections of inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia

This paper examines private tutoring systems in three East Asian countries (Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia) with the purpose of examining the relationship between those systems and formal education systems. The study of private tutoring systems in each nation can be used to reveal the inadequacies of the formal education system in meeting the ideal of equal opportunity of education in relation to high-stakes examinations. In each nation, the private tutoring system functions as a “shadow education market” to absorb unmet demand for additional education in a parasitic relationship with the formal system. Governments have enacted various policies to respond to the growing private tutoring systems which have proven largely ineffective and often led to further expansion. Pedagogical and curricular practices in the private tutoring systems have functioned to increase “anxiety” and “insecurity” in regard to the formal education system with the purpose of expanding the market. Studies of mass schooling systems and equal opportunity are incomplete without due consideration toward the role of the private tutoring system. Efforts toward education policy-making and reform to further the ideal of equal opportunity of education must be informed by such research on private tutoring.     

The prediction of private demand for education: An Indonesian case study

A number of methodologies, including the estimation of manpower needs and of the rate of return to investment, offer ways and means by which governments in the third world can define an appropriate level of supply of formal education. However, in practice, the desires of individual families for education for their children determine the actual level of utilization of the education supplied by government, and, acting through the private sector, also directly influence the level of supply. This study, based on a survey of rural families in several provinces in Indonesia, is an attempt to search for variables, and combinations of variables, which predict the actual utilization of schooling by individual families. The analysis suggests that the following are useful predictors: variables indicative of the provision of educational opportunity, some structural characteristics of the family, the family's economic status and the value orientations of the family toward education. A number of variables, more directly related to family demand, and of a more complex nature, are identified for investigation in further research.

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Zusammenfassung Verschiedene Methodologien einschliesslich der Schätzung des Bedarfs an Arbeitskräften und des Ertrags von Investitionen bieten Regierungen in der Dritten Welt die Möglichkeit, den Bedarf für Schulerziehung festzustellen. In Praxis bestimmen jedoch die Wünsche der einzelnen Familien bezüglich Ausbildung ihrer Kinder das Ausmass, in dem von den Bildungsmöglichkeiten, die die Regierung zur Verfügung stellt, Gebrauch gemacht wird. Über den privaten Sektor beeinflussen sie auch direkt den Umfang des Angebots. Diese auf einer Erhebung bei ländlichen Familien in mehreren Provinzen Indonesiens beruhende Studie stellt einen Versuch dar, Variable und Kombinationen von Variablen zu finden, mit deren Hilfe die tatsächliche Benutzung schulischer Einrichtungen durch die Familien vorausgesagt werden kann. Die Analyse ergibt, dass die folgenden dafür nützlich wären: Versorgung mit Bildungsmöglichkeiten, Familienstrukturmerkmale, wirtschaftlicher Status der Familie und Einstellung der Familie zur Bildung. Eine Anzahl komplizierterer und direkter auf die Familienwünsche bezogener Variablen werden zum Gebruach in weiteren Untersuchungen empfohlen.

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Résumé Plusieurs méthodologies incluant l'estimation du besoin en main-d'oeuvre et du taux de rentabilité de l'investissement permettent aux gouvernements du tiers monde de déterminer un niveau approprié d'offre de systèmes d'enseignement. Cependant dans la pratique les désirs de chaque famille particulière pour l'éducation de ses enfants déterminent le niveau réel d'utilisation de l'enseignement dispensé par le gouvernement, et, agissant par l'intermédiaire du secteur privé, ils influencent directement le niveau de l'offre. Cette étude basée sur une enquête sur les familles rurales dans plusieurs provinces d'Indonésie, est une tentative de recherches de variables et de combinaisons de variables prédisant l'utilisation réelle de l'instruction par chaque famille particulière. L'analyse suggère que les facteurs suivants sont d'utiles éléments de prédiction: les variables indiquant la présence d'opportunités éducationnelles, les caractéristiques structurales de la famille, le statut économique de la famille et la valeur qu'accorde la famille à l'éducation. Plusieurs variables en relation plus directe avec les demandes des familles et d'une nature plus complexe ont été établies pour faire l'objet de plus amples recherches.

     

对补习教育体系的争论及其政策意义

围绕"补习教育"体系对于学校教育和家庭的影响,不同的人站在不同的角度有着激烈的争论。本文通过文献研究发现,补习教育的支持者往往是自由主义者,他们普遍坚持家长拥有对子女的教育选择权;而补习教育的反对者则往往是教育机会平等的支持者,认为补习教育使得家长陷入"囚徒困境",并对教育机会平等分布产生影响。而实证研究的成果无疑对于收敛两者间的争论富有效果。补习教育是否应该进行,会受到关于补习教育效果和代价的实证研究成果的影响。最后,文章还探讨了补习教育研究的政策意义。