The state regulation of United Kingdom teacher education in the nineteenth century: The interplay of 'value' and 'sense'

Through a necessarily limited examination of the initial moves by the emergent modern state to regulate the training of teaching in the United Kingdom setting, this article traces many of the long-standing dilemmas which have bedevilled this provision but which originate in the nineteenth century educational settlement. 'Value' and 'sense' (Habermas, 1976) have been utilized in different ways over time by the state to regulate and assert control over this 'Cinderella' service. While this article foregrounds the regulatory policy shifts which have sought to 'manage' any impending crises - particularly where these relate to issues of supply, demand and 'quality' - it is axiomatic that at key historic moments, teachers have been able to assert their own policy agenda's - with differing levels of success - in order to attempt to bring off their own intentions.     

十九世纪交响乐与交响诗

交响乐与交响诗的真正确立是在十九世纪浪漫主义时期。本文从交响乐和交响诗的体裁,内容,演变历程,历史意义这四个方面入手,着重阐述十九世纪这两种重要音乐形式,即交响乐与交响诗。     

Froebelian women: networking to promote professional status and educational change in the nineteenth century

Recent comments by Baroness Warnock have reignited controversy over the relative merits of policies designed to promote inclusion and address special educational needs. These debates, conducted mainly between practitioners and parents, do not encourage input from historians but can usefully contextualize earlier models of service delivery. This paper concentrates on the interwar period when provision for children, whom we would now understand to have a moderate to severe learning disability, was shaped by the requirements of the 1913 Mental Deficiency Act. Existing studies that have examined the implementation of this legislation have tended to concentrate on the management of long‐stay institutions. This has led to a focus on medical care and the social control of adolescents and adults. Education has featured in these accounts but often in a fairly limited way, with more emphasis on school failure leading to admission than the educational potential of either the mental deficiency institution or its inmates. This paper seeks to redress the balance by offering a brief survey of the way education served as a way in, through and out of one of the largest specialist institutions in the South West of England before 1948.     

Squared paper in the nineteenth century: Instrument of science and engineering,and symbol of reform in mathematical education

The paper traces the gradual adoption of squared paper from its exclusive use as a research tool in the early 19th century to its universal use for a variety of purposes in mathematical education by the end of the first decade of this century. Three underlying causal factors are explored—the growth of new educational philosophies; the development of science teaching and the associated need for mathematics correlation; and the growing demands of engineering and technical education. Whilst the focus on squared paper is a narrow one, it is argued that its adoption in education generally was symptomatic of a much wider transformation of mathematical curricula in response to various demands which, significantly, arose outside the academic mathematical community.     

中国科学教育的现状与新世纪的奋斗目标

我国实施科学教育已有一百多年的历史，科学教育对我国科学进步和社会发展起了巨大的推动作用。但是时至今日我国国民的科学素质仍然偏低。法轮功组织的活动猖獗、封建迷信在一些地方泛滥成灾、科技人员的科技活动效率偏低以及环境污染危及我国人生存等事实，说明在新世纪进一步加强科学教育具有紧迫性和必要性。中提出新世纪我国科学教育的目标有：培养富有创新能力的科学家和工程师，提高国民科学素质，普及和传播科学知识，增强人们对邪教的抑制的科学辨别能力，形成“崇尚科学”的社会风气，树立正确科学的价值观等。     

Education for Domesticity? A nineteenth‐century perspective on girls' schooling and education

This paper considers the stated purposes and practices of girls' elementary (working‐class) schooling in the nineteenth century critically to consider the role of schooling in the reproduction of gender roles. It argues that, rather than the reproduction of ‘traditional’ models of gender, the stated aim of provided schooling in this period was the cultural transformation of working‐class womanhood in ways consistent with the social and cultural ideals of industrial society. In practice, however, tensions and disjunctions between the aims and practices of schooling meant that the reproduction of gender roles via formal education was flawed, contested and of relatively little significance in its direct influence on the lives of women. The discussion is set in the context of changes in the lives and work of adult women in the period and, drawing on evidence of the different experiences of girls and women in two contrasting regions, argues that the operation of gender ideologies embedded in family, community and work place organisation was much more significant than schooling in the educative influence exerted on female choices and behaviour. This analysis is applied to the education and schooling of girls today, to argue, firstly, that the model of gender ‘equality’ supposedly implicit within the National Curriculum is in reality a reversion to ‘traditional’ definitions of gender roles and secondly, to argue that changes in the education of boys are of crucial importance in transforming the educative influence of contemporary society from androcentricity to a genuine appreciation of equality between the sexes.     

19世纪穆氏家族与俄罗斯商人在恰克图交易大黄情况

自大航海时代以来,欧洲人认为中国甘肃、陕西地区出产的大黄是最具强健脏腑、镇静清热等疗效的药材。因此,他们希望透过各种管道取得大黄。自雍正五年（1727）年起,恰克图开市之后,清廷准许穆氏家族在恰克图卖大黄。俄国也派商人,前往恰克图买大黄。乾隆三年（1738）,俄罗斯官方独揽大黄生意,以毛皮或其他物资向穆氏家族换购大黄。穆氏家族与俄国人买卖大黄时有纠纷,例如：拖欠俄罗斯人货期、缺额,或者压低大黄产地价格,高价卖给俄国人;优质与劣质大黄混充卖给俄国人。俄国人也曾拿优劣参半的毛皮与穆氏家族交易,或者不依合约另找商人买大黄。因此,中、俄双方官员不时得监督两方商人交易大黄情形,减少纠纷与冲突。因为大黄贸易利润丰厚,穆氏家族得应付恰克图章京事务处、衙门差派与陋规,而且家族成员之间也常发生利益纠葛,数度请求库伦办事大臣调解家族纷争。由此可见穆氏家族与中央、地方衙门关系匪浅。中、俄的政治情势、经济状况、外交政策、市场需求等诸多因素,均影响中、俄商人大黄交易量与换购商品种类。例如：18世纪,清廷数度关闭恰克图市集,大黄因法令限制不得出口俄罗斯,但欧洲市场需求大黄热切,俄罗斯商人转向走私贸易。由于俄国购买中国大黄数量、价格受欧洲市场影响。在俄国官方垄断大黄贸易期间,经常面临走私竞争压力,数度设法制裁走私活动。自1782年以后,俄罗斯开放大黄自由交易,大黄贸易逐渐由莫斯科、沃洛格达和库尔斯克等商人垄断。19世纪起,俄罗斯手工业逐渐兴盛,加上在西伯利亚过度猎捕动物,毛皮逐渐短缺,使得俄国商人改以毛纺织品、棉纺织品、皮革制品等取代毛皮向穆氏家族换购大黄。     

Marketing pedagogy: Nonprofit marketing and the diffusion of monitorial teaching in the nineteenth century

The article investigates the spread of one of the first pedagogical concepts available worldwide during the first half of the nineteenth century: the monitorial system. Its wide diffusion depended, to a considerable extent, on the work of voluntary organisations. The article investigates the work of the two most important of these, the British and Foreign School Society and the National Society. It focuses on the strategies these two charities employed in acquiring donations in a voluntary sector that was densely populated and highly competitive. Drawing on modern marketing concepts as analytical tools, the article argues that the monitorial system’s wide diffusion was to a considerable extent the result of early forms of marketing. By introducing marketing concepts in the history of education, the article seeks to broaden the debate on the diffusion of educational concepts and, moreover, to contribute to the relatively new field of (nonprofit) marketing history.