Exploring the difficulty of mathematics examination questions for weaker readers

This research investigated the difficulty of examination questions for students with weaker reading skills. Item level performance data were obtained for all candidates who took a maths examination (for 16 year olds). A sub-group of students who had access to a reader was identified (students with proven reading difficulties are permitted to have an adult available to read the examination questions aloud). A matched control group of students was also identified. Facility values were calculated for the “Reader” and “Matched” groups and used to compare item difficulty between groups. Questions for which there was a statistically significant difference between scores for the two groups were selected for more detailed analysis of the responses given by 100 candidates from each group. The analyses attempted to identify the question features likely to have contributed to relative difficulty or ease for those with weaker reading skills. This can inform future question-writing practice.     

Exploring how children with reading difficulties respond to instructional supports in literacy games and the role of prior knowledge

Digital literacy games can be beneficial for children with reading difficulties as a supplement to classroom instruction and an important feature of these games are the instructional supports, such as feedback. To be effective, feedback needs to build on prior instruction and match a learner's level of prior knowledge. However, there is limited research around the relationship between prior knowledge, instruction and feedback in the context of learning games. This paper presents an empirical study exploring the influence of prior knowledge on response to feedback, in two conditions: with or without instruction. Thirty-six primary children (age 8–11) with reading difficulties participated: each child was assessed for their prior knowledge of two suffix types—noun and adjective suffixes. They subsequently received additional instruction for one suffix type and then played two rounds of a literacy game—one round for each suffix type. Our analysis shows that prior knowledge predicted initial success rates and performance after a verbal hint differently, depending on whether instruction was provided. These results are discussed with regards to learning game feedback design and the impact on different types of knowledge involved in gameplay, as well as other game design elements that might support knowledge building during gameplay.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

• Instructional supports, such as elaborative feedback, are a key feature of learning games.
• To be effective, feedback needs to build on prior instruction and match a learner's level of prior knowledge.
• Prior knowledge is an important moderator to consider in the context of elaborative feedback.

What this paper adds

• Providing additional instruction (eg, pre-training) may act as a knowledge enhancer building on children's existing disciplinary expertise, whereas the inclusion of elaborative feedback (eg, a hint) could be seen as a knowledge equaliser enabling children regardless of their prior knowledge to use the pre-training within their gameplay.
• Highlights the importance of children's preferred learning strategies within the design of pre-training and feedback to ensure children are able to use the instructional support provided within the game.
• Possible implications for pre-training and feedback design within literacy games, as well as highlighting areas for further research.

Implications for practice and/or policy

• Pre-training for literacy games should highlight key features of the learning content and explicitly make connections with the target learning objective as well as elaborative feedback.
• Pre-training should be combined with different types of in-game feedback for different types of learners (eg, level of prior knowledge) or depending on the type of knowledge that designers want to build (eg, metalinguistic vs. epilinguistic).
• Modality, content and timing of the feedback should be considered carefully to match the specific needs of the intended target audience and the interaction between them given the primary goal of the game.

     

Making science special for pupils with learning difficulties

In this article Susan Gebbels and Stewart M. Evans from Newcastle University and Lynne A. Murphy who is a practising school teacher in north‐east England discuss how they worked collaboratively on a programme of science education with a group of 16 Key Stage 3 pupils with moderate learning difficulties. The project lasted for one academic year and was part of Creative Partnerships, the Government's flagship creative learning programme. The authors describe some of the challenges faced by teachers to cater for the needs of all pupils within an inclusive school setting. The programme of science education focused on local marine and coastal environments with a special emphasis on fieldwork, enquiry‐based learning and cross‐curricular approaches to learning. The project was evaluated through the use of questionnaires, pupil interviews and informal discussions with teaching staff. Evaluations of the programme were positive. Pupils were more motivated to learn about science, had a sense of pride in their achievements and claimed that participation in the project helped them in forming friendships. The class published and distributed an information booklet on the coast to other schools and the general public.     

Reading comprehension difficulty is often distinct from difficulty in reading fluency and accompanied with problems in motivation and school well-being

Abstract

This paper examined if difficulty in reading comprehension (PISA) is distinct from difficulty in reading fluency and if the distinct types of reading difficulties are differently associated with learning motivation, school burnout, and school enjoyment. The participants were 1324 Finnish ninth graders. Findings suggested that difficulties in reading comprehension are often distinct from difficulties in reading fluency. Three reading difficulty groups were identified: (1) poor readers with both fluency and reading comprehension difficulties (n?=?46, 3.5%), (2) slow readers with only fluency difficulties (n?=?70, 5.3%), and (3) poor comprehenders with only reading comprehension difficulties (n?=?88, 6.5%). The slow readers had low scores only in reading-related motivation. Poor comprehenders and poor readers reported low motivation also in math and science, as well as higher level of burnout and lower school enjoyment than typical readers. The findings were similar for boys and girls.     

Contextual effects on predicting risk for reading difficulties in first and second grade

This study utilized early reading assessment data from a randomized trial of 210 urban and rural schools in Texas to examine contextual effects on risk prediction in first and second grade. The primary objective was to examine the roles of (a) individual differences, (b) the grade 1 classroom, and (c) the pairing of first and second grade teachers in determining grade 2 outcomes in word reading and fluency. A second objective was to investigate whether the administration format of the assessment (paper, paper plus desktop, handheld plus desktop) or the level of teacher support (web mentoring, no mentoring) moderated the prediction. These moderator variables proved not to be significant. Subsequent analyses found that a combination of student pretest and mean of pretest classroom was a better predictor than student pretest alone. Additionally, the effect of student scores varied by teacher-pair. On average, intraclass correlations (ICCs) ranged from 6% to 17%. Differences in ICCs at the classroom level were much greater than at the school level, and differences in urban schools were twice that of rural schools.     

Key skills for science learning: the importance of text cohesion and reading ability

To explore the importance of text cohesion, we conducted two experiments. We measured online (reading times) and offline (comprehension accuracy) processes for texts that were high and low cohesion. In study one (n?=?60), we manipulated referential cohesion using noun repetition (high cohesion) and synonymy (low cohesion). Students showed enhanced comprehension accuracy and faster comprehension responses for text that were high in referential cohesion. In study two (n?=?52), we examined connective text designs (‘because’, ‘and’ and ‘no connective’). Students demonstrated enhanced reading times for text using a ‘because’ connective. Additionally, we examined the individual differences (reading ability, science self-concept and self-esteem) as predictors of achievement with science comprehension tasks. Across both experiments reading ability predicted comprehension with both high (noun-repetition text and ‘and’ text) and low cohesion text (synonym text and ‘no connective’ text). These findings highlight the importance of good reading abilities and text cohesion for promoting science comprehension and learning.     

Improving the reading ability of science students through study groups and multiple intelligences

This study explored the effects of appropriate pedagogical skills （study groups and multiple intelligences） on students＇ efficiencies in reading skills. It employed a factorial design using three variables. A sample of 90 science students choosing from three intact classes were involved in the study. Data analyses were carried out using mean, standard deviation, analysis of covariance and multiple classification analysis. Findings revealed the significant difference in performance of the groups taught using study groups and multiple intelligences methods.     

Examining England's National Curriculum assessments: an analysis of the KS2 reading test questions, 1993–2004

The Year 6 National Curriculum reading test has become a familiar and established annual experience at the end of the primary phase in schools throughout England. From 1993 onwards, each year the national reading test for 11‐year‐olds has consisted of a different set of texts, accompanied by a different set of questions. With over a decade's accumulation of national assessment materials, the National Foundation for Educational Research decided to fund a project to take stock of the reading test, scrutinise what children have been expected to do over the years, and track the evolution of the assessment. A new taxonomy of question focuses, introduced by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority in 2003 , provided the opportune moment to conduct a retrospective re‐categorisation of all the questions that had ever appeared in a Key Stage 2 reading test. This paper reports on that exercise and reveals that some forms of questioning remain constant and reappear every year, while others are subject to variation.     

科学教材中阅读材料的特点和功能--对美国初中科学教材《物质的特性》、《人体系统》的分析

在美国的初中科学教材中,阅读材料与正文的关系是相辅相成的。阅读材料能使得教材在内容的深度和广度、时间和空间上得到扩展,能渗透科学技术与社会和科学发展史的内容,有利于学生开展研究性学习,所以阅读材料具有使科学教材在内容上综合化、弹性化、补充正文、培养学生的各种能力和激发学生对科学的学习兴趣的功能。其他国家编写科学教材的成功经验对我们有很好的借鉴和启发作用。     

Classroom activities and engagement for children with reading and writing difficulties

A multiple case study is reported aiming at comparing the degree of taking part and being engaged in classroom activities for children with and without reading and writing difficulties. Observations are made of 23 pupils with reading and writing difficulties (seven with a diagnosis of dyslexia), and 23 pupils in a control group; the observations concern accessibility to, taking part in, engagement and received help in classroom activities. The result is discussed in relation to the two goals in Swedish schools: ‘goals to attain’ and ‘goals to aim for’. A conclusion is that the two goals for the instruction in Swedish language involve a dilemma for teachers, since all children are expected to reach the ‘goals to attain’, while instruction is expected to be directed towards ‘goals to aim for’.     

Perceptual skills and Arabic literacy patterns for mathematically gifted children with specific learning difficulties

Phonological awareness is a key factor in the development of literacy, and frequently presents itself as an area of weakness in pupils with reading difficulties. In this article, Anies Al-Hroub of the American University of Beirut sets out to define a distinguishing pattern of characteristics that supports the identification of pupils with specific learning difficulties who are gifted in mathematics and reports the assessment of the pupils' visual and auditory perceptual skills, including phonological awareness. The assessments were designed to measure auditory and visual memory skills, auditory and visual analysis skills, speed of information processing and spoken language (receptive and expressive). Furthermore, aspects of language learning such as reading, writing, spelling and parts of listening ability were all assessed for mathematically gifted pupils with specific learning difficulties who scored above the cut-off score of 120 on the WISC-III-Jordan. The article closes with recommendations for further research.     

Prizing children's science information books: the text,reading and the reader

The Royal Society Young People's Book Prize is awarded annually in the United Kingdom for the best science information book, and the winning book is chosen by panels of young people. This article discusses the findings of a study of the responses to the books and to their judging experience of young people who participated on panels in the 2011 Royal Society Young People's Book Prize. Interviews were conducted with 46 young people, aged from 8 to 14 years, from across the United Kingdom. The nature of contemporary non‐fiction books is discussed, specifically science information books. The impact of their design and format on reading is explored, as is the social nature of reading, which was a consequence of the judging panel context. The young people had opinions on the age range for which each book was most suitable, but they generally did so in such a way as to include themselves. It was found that their judging responsibilities contributed to these young people displaying a positive reading identity and sense of self‐efficacy.     

Predicting item difficulty of science national curriculum tests: the case of key stage 2 assessments

Predicting item difficulty is highly important in education for both teachers and item writers. Despite identifying a large number of explanatory variables, predicting item difficulty remains a challenge in educational assessment with empirical attempts rarely exceeding 25% of variance explained.

This paper analyses 216 science items of key stage 2 tests which are national sampling assessments administered to 11 year olds in England. Potential predictors (topic, subtopic, concept, question type, nature of stimulus, depth of knowledge and linguistic variables) were considered in the analysis. Coding frameworks employed in similar studies were adapted and employed by two coders to independently rate items. Linguistic demands were gauged using a computational linguistic facility. The stepwise regression models predicted 23% of the variance with extended constructed questions and photos being the main predictors of item difficulty.

While a substantial part of unexplained variance could be attributed to the unpredictable interaction of variables, we argue that progress in this area requires improvement in the theories and the methods employed. Future research needs to be centred on improving coding frameworks as well as developing systematic training protocols for coders. These technical advances would pave the way to improved task design and reduced development costs of assessments.     

What is literacy for students with severe learning difficulties? Exploring conventional and inclusive literacy

This paper arises from research into inclusive literacy for pupils with severe learning difficulties who do not learn to read and write conventionally. The ultimate aim of the study was to seek out examples of good practice in teaching and learning literacy that includes students with severe learning difficulties and disseminate them as widely as possible. Thirty-five schools were visited and observations made in 122 lessons. Sixty-one teachers were interviewed and their paperwork examined. Ten focus groups and five 'expert witnesses' were consulted, alongside desk-based research designed to locate 'good practice'. Teachers used a mixture of conventional (e.g., texts) and non-conventional (e.g., pictures, film and oral) media, although more observations were made of conventional literacy teaching (e.g., phonic work) than of non-conventional (e.g., filmmaking). Results from the research suggest that few students with severe learning difficulties are likely to learn to read and write conventionally (i.e., read for pleasure, work and study) and teachers may be relying too much on teaching traditional literacy to them. It may be useful to explore teaching and learning around alternative media such as still and moving images, live theatre and storytelling, digital technology and the arts. Although some teachers are making good use of these media, the potential of these media for providing inclusive literacy experiences could be further developed.     

Democratic science teaching: A role for the history of science

For John Dewey, democracy meant the opportunity and the ability to participate in the continuing conversation of the community. To participate effectively, education must free the intelligence to creatively reconstruct the community. Dewey traced logic back to its etymological roots in dialogue. The history of science is the history of a conversation of an international community. To participate in it effectively, students must free their intelligence. Logically, this is best done by creative and disciplined democratic classroom dialogue instead of the monologue common to so many schools. We recommend a dialogical model of science teaching.     

Pause, prompt and praise – peer tutored reading for pupils with learning difficulties

Eila Burns undertook the enquiry that is the subject of this article while studying for her MEd degree at the University of Birmingham. She is now a lecturer in teacher education at Jyvaskyla University of Applied Sciences in Finland. The project she describes here aimed to assess the effectiveness of peer tutoring and the advantages of the structured 'pause, prompt and praise' reading method in improving reading skills among pupils working in Key Stage 4. Action research was undertaken in a secondary level special school catering for pupils with moderate learning difficulties (MLD) in order to explore the benefits of establishing such interventions within special school environment.
The pause, prompt and praise reading sessions were conducted at the beginning of lessons, employing same-age peer tutors and using subject-based texts. The findings reveal that, after a slow start, the tutees' rates of self-correction began to rise, indicating improvements in reading skills. Eila Burns also reports growing skills and confidence in the tutors, suggesting benefits for all involved in the peer tutoring process. She describes, in detail, interesting differences between outcomes for the different tutor-tutee pairings in her work and proposes a number of ways in which her small-scale enquiry could be taken forward. The implications of this study are, however, very encouraging for practitioners considering the use of peer tutoring in their own environments.     

Using video self-modelling to increase active learning responses during small-group reading instruction for primary school pupils with social emotional and mental health difficulties

Effectiveness of a video self-modelling (VSM) intervention was examined with primary schoolchildren who attended a full-time special education programme for pupils with social emotional and behavioural difficulties and who exhibited inappropriate behaviour during small-group reading instruction. A randomised multiple-probe baseline design was used in this study in four subjects with a follow-up phase 6 weeks after intervention. Four children aged 10 were videotaped during reading instruction to determine levels of active learning and behavioural difficulties. Intervention took place at the teacher’s desk or table 3–5 minutes immediately before the child’s designated time for reading group instruction. During intervention, the children were shown carefully selected brief segments of their own video that had been recorded during the previous session. Results indicated VSM was an effective intervention for increasing active learning responses and for reducing behavioural difficulties during reading instruction. Optimum results were maintained for more than 8 weeks after intervention. These results support VSM as an effective antecedent intervention and add to the growing body of evidence-based practices for elementary school pupils who have social emotional and mental health difficulties.     

Questioning the benefits that coloured overlays can have for reading in students with and without dyslexia

Visual stress (the experience of visual distortions and discomfort during prolonged reading) is frequently identified and alleviated with coloured overlays or lenses. Previous studies have associated visual stress with dyslexia and as a consequence, coloured overlays are widely distributed to children and adults with reading difficulty. However, this practice remains controversial. We investigated whether overlays have advantageous and reliable benefits for reading in undergraduate students with and without dyslexia. Both groups read jumbled text faster with a coloured overlay than without. The dyslexic group did not show greater gains than controls, despite reporting significantly more symptoms of visual stress. However, coloured overlays did not improve reading rate or comprehension of connected text. The improvement in reading speed with an overlay was not reliable and was significantly reduced at retesting for dyslexic students. These results question the value of coloured overlays as a tool for identifying visual stress and as a form of remediation for the reading difficulties associated with dyslexia.     

Mediation in the relationship among EL status,vocabulary, and science reading comprehension

The authors investigated the mediating effects of general academic and science-specific vocabulary on science reading comprehension among English learners (ELs) of varied proficiency. The sample included 169 regular education Grade 7 students (86 current ELs; 83 former ELs) enrolled in 1 urban school in Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The results indicated that both vocabulary types—rarely explicitly taught at the secondary level—were significant contributors to reading comprehension, above and beyond EL status. The full parallel mediation model accounted for 55% of the variance in science reading comprehension. Notably, the mediating effects of both vocabulary types were significant and statistically similar in size, yet, not sufficient to fully explain ELs' reading scores. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.