RELATION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY TO MEMORY FUNCTIONING IN OLDER ADULTS: THE MEMORY WORKOUT PROGRAM

This paper describes a Phase I pilot study for the future development and field testing of a prototype CD-ROM program called the MEMORY WORKOUT. The MEMORY WORKOUT helps older adults increase and monitor changes in their daily physical and cognitive activity levels and these effects on physical functioning and memory. A holistic, multimodal model of memory provides the theoretical base for the design of the program. The primary purpose of this program is to enhance users' appreciation for the immediate and longer term benefits of exercise and physical activity on daily mental and physical function. Phase I results with 24 older adults (mean age = 71.2 years) indicate significant cross-sectional relationships among exercise time, exercise efficacy, and word list memory, and moderate to strong interest in improving memory and physical activity. Using Phase I prototype information, the goal of a Phase II project is to produce a complete, interactive, multimedia CD-ROM program that includes fitness training, assessment, and simulation components that are appropriate for adults over age 60.     

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION OF OLDER ADULTS: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

This article presents a number of historical themes that are relevant to emerging efforts in the religious education of older adults. Drawing on themes in Jewish, Christian, Confucian, and other world religions the author indicates that religious bodies have shown respect for the elderly, especially for their abilities as teachers and counselors. Older adults have pursued learning either by living in close connection with religious communities or in separate institutions under the sponsorship of religious bodies. Religious traditions have urged study and contemplation as suitable activities for their older members. The increased numbers of older adults in religious bodies is a problem that can be turned into educational challenge and opportunity.     

METACOMPREHENSION AND COMPREHENSION PERFORMANCE IN YOUNGER AND OLDER ADULTS

On the basis of metamemory assessment research and theories of discourse comprehension, the Metacomprehension Scale (MCS) was designed to assess multiple dimensions of metacomprehension. In a sample of younger (n = 30) and older (n = 30) adults, we examined age differences in self‐assessed components of metacomprehension and the relation of the MCS to comprehension performance and general verbal ability. Younger adults reported greater use of strategies to resolve comprehension failures (i.e., regulation) and placed higher value on good comprehension skills than older adults. The MCS revealed a substantial amount of variance in comprehension performance and verbal ability, with the regulation dimension of metacomprehension being a reliable and consistent predictor of performance. The results provided support for domain‐specific assessment of metacognition and for the critical role of regulation in comprehension performance.     

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND CAREER RETRAINING IN OLDER ADULTS

Recent research on the cognitive development and functioning of older adults is reviewed and explored in relation to vocational retraining. It is argued that an ecological approach to the study of cognitive development in older adults is preferable, based on the life‐phase, hierarchical‐stage and cognitive functioning literatures. The relevance of this literature for career development in older adults is considered and suggestions for future research are offered. In particular, it is proposed that retraining programs designed to facilitate the career adaptability and success of older persons should attempt to increase their cognitive complexity and flexibility.     

FAITH DEVELOPMENT IN OLDER ADULTS

This paper has two purposes: (1) To introduce the faith development paradigm of James Fowler and (2) to review a research project in which that paradigm was applied to older adults. Four hypotheses related to “normal” aging were examined in the research project, and no broad‐based support was found for any of the hypotheses. Agesense, a new variable studied in the project, is defined as the degree to which older persons were subjectively aware of changes in general, as they progressed through the periods of late‐middle age and old age. The subjects' agesense ratings were very closely related to their levels of faith development. Questions for further faith development research are included in this article.     

SERVICE LEARNING AND OLDER ADULTS

Youth and older adults are the most valuable sources of community volunteerism in the United States today. An important part of involving youth in service to others has been the proliferation and sophistication of service-learning programs that provide opportunities for meaningful engagement and reflection. Increasingly, service learning is recognized as an integral part of both community involvement and education, and youth are provided with growing opportunities to combine practice and knowledge. As this movement has developed, however, older adult volunteers have been largely excluded. Despite theory and observation that demonstrates older adults' desire to stay engaged in learning and service, programs providing them with structured opportunities are rare. After outlining the development and expansion of service-learning programs for youth in the United States, this paper asks the question, ''Why not service learning for elders?'' analyzes some of the potential benefits of institutionalizing such an approach, and highlights promising efforts in the field.     

SELF-REGULATION,SELF-EFFICACY AND HEALTH BEHAVIOR CHANGE IN OLDER ADULTS

Models of self-regulated behavior, based on social cognitive theory, have been applied across a range of settings and with individuals who possess a variety of personal characteristics and needs. One of the most explored applications of self-regulation (SR) has been in the field of health where it has been used as a basis for the development of preventative and rehabilitation programs related to, for instance, cardiovascular disease, asthma, AIDS, arthritis, obesity, and addictions. There is a paucity of information about the application of SR models to subgroups of people such as older adults, ethnic groups, and women. This article focuses on models of SR as they apply to the health-related behaviors of older adults. It begins with a general overview of models described in the literature. It then examines the applicability of those models to health behavior change in older adults. The article also draws on literature from the field of learning in order to assess how useful these models are in designing interventions to help older people to learn about health maintenance and health restoration.     

PROSPECTIVE MEMORY TRAINING IN OLDER ADULTS

This study evaluates the results of a training program for prospective remembering. The goal of the training was to improve prospective memory by associating cues from the retrieval situation with the to be remembered information. The training group consisted of 20 participants, aged between 45 and 81 years. The effects of strategy training were compared with those of an educational training group (N = 23 , age range 45-84) directed at reducing worries about forgetfulness, and a retest control group (N = 22 , age range 46-74). The educational training and retest control groups did not differ in demographic characteristics and test performance and were combined into one control group. Subjective evaluations revealed that subjects were very satisfied with the effects of training. This also was true for subjects in the educational training condition. The objective effects of training were evaluated with a telephone task which had to be performed in the daily life situation, and a prospective categorization task performed in the laboratory. Despite the low reliabilities of the prospective tasks, a significant but small effect of training compared to the combined control group was found on the sum score of prospective tests. The training effect was not related to age or pretraining performance level. At the three months follow-up, however, performance of the control group had increased to the level of the trained group. As expected, training effects did not generalize to other memory measures (assessed with tests for remembering names) or control measures (assessed with visuo-motor reaction time tests).     

CRITICAL GERONTOLOGY AND EDUCATION FOR OLDER ADULTS

Complementary meanings of educational gerontology are considered to introduce a discussion of the role of “critical gerontology” as a theoretical stance in education for older adults. The sources of critical gerontology are traced to the movement toward interpretive social science in the past decade and to the interdisciplinary dynamics of gerontology as an emerging field of inquiry and practice. Examples of the intentions and uses of critical gerontology and its meaning for education are offered in accounts of the history of the social construction and of wisdom and religion in the postmodern life course.     

EMERGING NEW SERVICE ROLES FOR OLDER ADULTS ON COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES

A growing need exists to identify and develop meaningful retirement roles for older adults in a variety of settings and modes. College and university campuses provide a particularly stimulating environment for involvement of the retired population not only as lifelong learners but also as contributors to the functional operation of the institution. A national survey was conducted to explore the extent to which programs have been initiated to involve older adults in meaningful volunteer tasks, responsibilities, and roles on university campuses. Emeritus faculty and staff may find these opportunities conducive to continue to perform useful service to the university. Data suggest that although significant barriers exist that hinder the smooth development of service‐oriented programs for the elderly on university campuses, the feasibility of these programs has been demonstrated and a substantial number are currently in operation around the country. Positive outcomes resulting from establishing older adult service programs include improvement of intergenerational communication, reduction of ageism, provision of useful services to educational institutions, and enhancement of the quality of life in retirement.     

ILLITERACY AND OLDER ADULTS: INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS

Literacy has become an important predictor of well being in old age. Being literate in today's society demands a myriad of functional abilities, which, when absent, can have dramatic health, economic, and social consequences. The purpose of this study was to develop a framework for defining literacy within an increasingly technological society, and to explore the experience of illiteracy among older adults. To examine these issues, qualitative data were gathered from an adult literacy program in Hamilton, Ohio. Data collected through these interactions suggest that the devastating effects of illiteracy are exacerbated throughout the lifecourse, resulting in significant disadvantage for older adults.     

INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH EDUCATION IN COMMUNICATION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION AMONG HEALTHY OLDER ADULTS

An innovative gerontology education program was developed to advance research on aging that is interdisciplinary and promotes the translation of knowledge from lab to life. The program focuses on communication and social interaction in healthy aging. It brings together faculty mentors, graduate students, and post-doctoral fellows from six different postsecondary institutions in Canada. The program unifies basic laboratory research in hearing, vision, and cognition with applied research in audiology, biomedical engineering, optometry, psychology, speech-language pathology, human factors, and social work. The design, implementation, and evaluation of the first year of the program are described and future directions are suggested.     

TRAINING OLDER AND YOUNGER ADULTS TO USE SOFTWARE

Forty‐six subjects (22 young, 24 old) received three training sessions with software (Borland's “Sidekick"). Each session lasted a maximum of S h. The fourth session was a test. Subjects were randomly assigned to two learning environments, partnered or individual, and half were given a computer “jargon” sheet before training. All instructions were written, learning was self‐paced, and tasks were formulated according to discovery‐method guidelines. Attitudes toward computers were measured before Session 1 and on completion of Session 3. The results showed that older adults took twice as long as younger ones but achieved nearly equal performance levels, exceeding young adults in one condition but falling slightly below them in others. Older adults requested help two to three times as frequently. Session 3 attitude scores were positively correlated with the mark achieved on the final test, and changes in attitudes were related to training conditions.     

THE ACTIVE INGREDIENTS IN HUMOR: PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL BENEFITS AND RISKS FOR OLDER ADULTS

Humor produces psychological and physiological effects on our body that are similar to the health benefits of aerobic exercise. These benefits are some of the best kept secrets from those persons who probably have the most to gain from that information - older adults. Many of them who must live with chronic pain, arthritis, rheumatism, emphysema, memory loss, depression, and stress may be able to cope better with their conditions or find temporary relief by using humor. This article presents an up-to-date, comprehensive synthesis of 30 years of research evidence on 15 psychophysiological benefits of humor and laughter with their implications for older adults. The specific risks for this growing segment of the population also are identified. Strategies for communicating this information through publications and formal presentations by health educators working in gerontology are suggested. A curriculum outline is provided for use in developing short, feature presentations or integrating the content into existing exercise and health-related courses and programs. If these efforts are effective, eventually the health benefits of humor and laughter will be as familiar to our senior citizens as the risk factors associated with heart disease and smoking.     

IN DEFENSE OF OFFERING EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS FOR OLDER ADULTS

Education and training play major roles in the lives of older adults. They serve preventive, facilitative, remedial, and preparatory functions. In this paper we present demographic changes related to education, outline motives and educational needs of older adults, examine the role of education in reducing the decline in mental functioning, discuss the need to engage underserved segments of the population, and offer suggestions for designing educational programs for older adults.     

TELEVISION AS AN EDUCATIONAL AND OUTREACH MEDIUM FOR OLDER ADULTS

This paper examines the medium of television as a means of education and outreach for older adults. It looks at positive and negative potentials of television. Particular attention is given to public television, cable television and videotapes. The viewing patterns, social and psychological functions of television, and the programming preferences of older adults are explored in terms of their relevance to educators and service providers.     

PRESCRIBING AN EXERCISE PROGRAM AND MOTIVATING OLDER ADULTS TO COMPLY

There is strong experimental evidence to indicate that regular exercise can prevent disease, decrease the risk of falling, reduce physical disability, improve sleep, and enhance mood and general well being. Despite these benefits, approximately 50% of sedentary adults who start an exercise program stop within the first six months of involvement. To help older adults initiate and adhere to a regular exercise program, a seven step approach was developed. The seven steps include. (1) education, (2) exercise prescreening, (3) setting goals, (4) exposure to exercise, (5) role models, (6) verbal encouragement, and (7) verbal reinforcement and rewards. The seven steps provide a useful guide for how to implement an appropriate exercise program, and how to help these individuals stick to such a program once it is initiated.     

NEW ROLES AND NORMS FOR OLDER ADULTS THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATION

A growing number of older adults develop new roles and identities in their retirement years. They may be trend‐setters in creating new norms for future generations of retirees. Research conducted by the North Carolina Center for Creative Retirement at the University of North Carolina at Asheville on middle‐class, well‐educated retirees with professional or managerial prior work roles indicates that these retirees want volunteer, leadership, and learning opportunities. A study of 101 alumni of the center's leadership for seniors program showed how institutions of higher education can play a prominent part in facilitating the development of roles and norms that often transcend the general public's ideas of what retirees can do and contribute.