Reviews

This response to the comment of Abraham on Van Houtte’s study within the differentiation–polarization tradition discusses the difference between her quantitative study and the ethnographic tradition. The quantification of the polarization part of the theory—the anti‐school culture—makes it possible to merge the differentiation–polarization tradition with the research examining the consequences of educational stratification on students’ achievement. This is presented as the major contribution of Van Houtte’s research. In addition, the study strengthens the findings of the case‐study approach and consolidates the differentiation–polarization theory. The complementarity of both approaches—large‐scale multi‐site and case‐study—is stressed.     

School type and academic culture: evidence for the differentiation–polarization theory

Several decades ago it was shown that the differentiation of pupils into tracks and streams led to a polarization into ‘anti‐school’ and ‘pro‐school’ cultures. Support for this differentiation–polarization theory is mainly based on case studies. This paper presents findings of a quantitative study in Belgium (Flanders). Attention is given to the conceptualization of the polarization component of the differentiation–polarization theory. The findings suggest that the culture of pupils is less study‐oriented in technical/vocational schools than in general (grammar) schools. The differentiation–polarization theory also applies to school staffs: the staff culture is less academically‐oriented in technical/vocational schools than in general schools. Moreover, staffs' attitudes towards pupils—their judgements on the teachability of pupils and the trust they place in pupils—are different.     

Safety and security in schools in KwaZulu-Natal

This article is based on research conducted on the topic: Safety and security in schools: The case of KwaZulu-Natal. For the research project a purposive sample consisting of secondary school learners, teachers, school governing body chairpersons and principals were selected from the rural and township schools used in this study to explore the views of respondents about the state of safety and security in their school environments. The research was grounded in the social interpretive tradition, using an ethnographic research design, with one-on-one and focus group interviews. Data were analysed using critical discourse analysis to construct the main theme: namely, safety within schools. The findings indicated that learners and teachers are not safe in their schools. Lack of safety and security is characterised by the vulnerability of schools with regard to issues such as fighting, violent murders, sexual harassment, stabbings, the use of derogatory language and threats. It is argued that there is an urgent need to address the concerns of the participants.     

What counts as evidence in the school choice debate?

This article has two chief purposes. It presents a substantive reappraisal of a decade of school choice research in the UK. This reappraisal is used as a case study illustrating the elasticity of the notion of social science ‘evidence’, when wielded by academics in an area where strong ideological preconceptions struggle with the lack of a sound quantitative tradition of research. The focus here is on the changing socio‐economic compositions of schools in an era of choice. A prediction from theory and from small‐scale studies had been that schools in England and Wales would become more segregated in terms of indicators of socio‐economic disadvantage after the Education Reform Act 1988. The first large‐scale study of the actual compositions of schools suggested that this did not happen. This study was then subjected by a majority of UK academics in the field to a level of criticism that was not applied by them to subsequent, but seemingly inferior, studies that reached an opposite conclusion. The criticism involved widespread misquotation and misunderstanding that was not picked up by ‘peer’ review. What, therefore, counts as evidence in the school choice debate?     

Pupils' perspectives on racism and differential treatment by teachers: On stragglers,the ill and being deviant

While British educational researchers have given considerable attention to issues of racism, little attention has been given to how pupils themselves perceive differential teacher treatment and how such views relate to pupils' claims of teacher racism and racial discrimination. This article employs ethnographic data gathered from one English and two Flemish (Belgian) secondary schools to investigate pupils' perceptions of teachers' differential treatment of pupils. All schools were multi‐ethnic in character and located in inner‐city areas. The analysis of the data suggests that three ideal types of pupils were perceived as legitimate recipients of a less or more favourable teacher treatment: the ill, stragglers and deviants. This study illustrates how pupils' claims about teacher racism and racial discrimination relate to conflicts between particular pupils and their teachers over the appropriateness of their status as ill, stragglers or deviants and related role expectations. The final section discusses implications of this study for future research on processes of racism and racial discrimination in educational settings.     

Social identity theories and educational engagement

There is a large body of research in studies of schooling, particularly ethnographic case studies, which posits that collective action among students undermines engagement in school and contributes to educational inequality. In this paper I review studies of engagement from a social identity theory perspective. To what extent can collective action explain why some student groups are less engaged than others? I discuss four approaches to identifying social identity‐related problems of engagement frequently used in prior research. While researchers often find problems of engagement among low‐academic‐status students, research on educational engagement has had difficulty locating the underlying causes of inequality in student engagement. Social identity theories of educational engagement are inherently theories of collective action. I conclude that a fifth approach, large‐scale observational studies of monitoring and sanctioning, provides the best framework for identifying both the prevalence of, and solutions to, this particular source of disengagement.     

Are small classes better? Understanding relationships between class size,classroom processes and pupils' learning

Twelve years ago Blatchford and Mortimore's authoritative review of class size research appeared in this journal. They concluded that a major problem with class size research was the lack of detailed studies of complex classroom processes that might mediate class size effects on pupils' learning. This article reviews two UK class size reviews and quantitative, qualitative and mixed method class size research. Evidence from research, and insights from 30 years of classroom‐based inquiry, form the basis for the development of theoretical models of relationships between class size, classroom processes and pupils' learning. Recent research evidence from secondary school classrooms calls into question simple one‐way relationships between class size and pupils' learning. Politicians are challenged to face up to the complexities involved and to be open to more flexible approaches to reforming the organisation of teaching and learning in schools that go beyond expensive programmes of crude across‐the‐board class size reductions. Further class size research is recommended that incorporates sophisticated qualitative methods in order to adequately understand and represent the kinds of teacher and pupil expertise involved in promoting and maximising opportunities for high quality learning in different large and small class contexts in primary and secondary schools.     

From Noncompliance to Columbine: Capturing Student Perspectives to Understand Noncompliance and Violence in Public Schools

The paper reviews a number of ethnographic studies of students in U.S. secondary schools to help understand the causes of a range of student behaviors from minor non-compliance to lethal violence. Based on these studies, as well personal experience, the authors suggest that educators and educational researchers approach and understand student perspectives on school life. Such perspectives often reveal the logic of non-compliance, and show that aspects of school structure and practice can exacerbate or contribute to violence. Student non-compliance and alienation can escalate into violence if the student view is not regularly consulted in schools.     

Inclusion and achievement: student achievement in secondary schools with higher and lower proportions of pupils designated as having special educational needs

This paper reports on a multi‐method study that examined the effects of including higher and lower proportions of students designated as having special educational needs on student achievement in secondary schools. It explores some of the issues involved in conducting such research and considers the extent to which newly available national data in England can be helpful in answering questions about inclusion and achievement. Questions pertaining to the effects of provision on achievement are discussed within a school reform agenda that emphasizes high academic standards, competition between schools and the identification of pupils with special educational needs.     

Investigating the extent and use of peer support initiatives in English schools

This survey aims to give a broad overview of the way peer support is currently used in English primary and secondary schools, and to highlight common patterns. Regional strata samples of schools were selected from an online database. Questionnaire data were obtained from 240 schools (130 primary and 110 secondary), of which 186 had peer support schemes. An adjusted estimation (which makes some correction for non‐response error) suggests that 62% of schools are using a structured peer support scheme. The survey results also give an indication of some common patterns and commonalities in the characteristics of existing schemes, as well as some differences between primary and secondary schools. The implementation of peer support is often multi‐dimensional, particularly in secondary schools after a scheme had been running for some time. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research and in terms of the nature of school‐based peer support programmes.     

Site Selection within Comparative Case Study and Ethnographic Research

In reading numerous comparative accounts that use case studies or ethnographies of schools and classrooms, it is evident that insufficient concern is often given to the choice of research sites. Far too often it seems that researchers settle for research sites to which they can easily gain convenient and ready access rather than thinking through the implications of particular choices. The result is that there are too many comparative case studies where the choice of both the countries involved and the more micro-sites and case studies do not appear to be closely related to any theoretical objectives of the study. It is recognised that when selecting sites, researchers have to consider the time, financial and personal costs involved in conducting fieldwork in what might be distant and inconvenient locations. Additionally, and obviously, ethnographic and case study research can only proceed where access has been achieved, and this is not always straightforward. But, however difficult access may be, it is crucial that obtaining access is not seen as the primary consideration in selecting an appropriate site. The argument will be illustrated with examples from the author's current comparative research on schools for religious minorities in the Netherlands and England.     

Nanosciences and nanotechnologies learning and teaching in secondary education: a review of literature

This literature review provides an overview of recent studies on the introduction of nanosciences and nanotechnologies in secondary education. Four salient research topics have emerged: questions and reflections preceding curriculum development on nanosciences and nanotechnologies lessons; research on students’ conceptualisations of nano‐related concepts; the use of haptic tools to teach nanosciences and nanotechnologies; and professional development for secondary schools teachers. In a final critical discussion, the lack of studies in the literature considering nanosciences and nanotechnologies as a socioscientific issue in secondary education is emphasised. In addition, implications for future research as well as suggestions for nanosciences and nanotechnologies curriculum development are considered.     

Classroom,Home and Peer Environment Influences on Student Outcomes in Science and Mathematics: An analysis of systemic reform data

Using secondary analysis of a large database from a Statewide Systemic Initiative, we examined the effects of several types of environments on student outcomes. Over 3 years, nearly 7,000 students in 392 classes in 200 different schools responded to a questionnaire that assesses class, home, and peer environments as well as student attitudes. Students also completed an achievement measure that, developed by scientists, teachers, and science educators, was not aligned with any particular curriculum. Students were enrolled in middle‐school science and mathematics classes in schools that had participated in the Statewide Systemic Initiative. Rasch analyses allowed us to compare across student cohorts and across schools. Findings confirmed the importance of extending research on classroom learning environments to include the learning environments of the home and the peer group. Although all three environments accounted for statistically significant amounts of unique variance in student attitudes, only the class environment (defined in terms of the frequency of use of standards‐based teaching practices) accounted for statistically significant amounts of unique variance in student achievement scores. The findings are supported by other studies of systemic reform in the United States.     

Literacy,poverty and schooling: what matters in young people's education?

This paper draws upon several decades of literacy research in schools in high‐poverty environments to explore what matters in young people's education. In dialogue with themes from Kevin Marjoribanks' work, such as student aspirations, family environments and teacher expectations, key insights are summarised. Referring to longitudinal case studies and a current ethnographic project, the interplay between literacy, poverty and schooling, and young people's aspirations and education outcomes is explored. Although the work of educators in high‐poverty communities continues to be highly demanding, there are some schools and teachers making a durable positive difference to learner dispositions and literate repertoires. Teacher expectations and discursive practices are crucial in this process.     

Gender,Change and Adventure Education

A central concern of feminist research of schooling is the ways in which schooling transmits and reinforces inequalities between the sexes. Girls in mixed‐sex classrooms where boys dominate are marginalised, their abilities underrated and they may be ‘turned‐off’ certain subjects. Is this girl ‘unfriendliness’ a feature of all aspects of mixed schooling or are there contexts in which girls are brought more fully into the learning process? What might such a situation mean for girls and boys? This paper, based upon an ethnographic case‐study of outdoor/adventure education, a much neglected area for sociological research, asks such questions. Observational data of lessons, collected within the case‐study outdoor/adventure centre, show interesting interaction patterns and forms of communication which contradict those which prevail in mainstream schools. Girls’ and boys’ accounts highlight significant differences in their views concerning themselves, their teachers and their relations with others in comparison with research undertaken in mainstream schools. This paper argues that the material conditions, social relations and ethos prevailing within the case‐study centre affect the form and content of the overt and ‘hidden’ curricula made available to girls and boys, providing for a shift in the construction of gender identities and relations.     

西方对中小学生对抗行为的民族志研究及其对我国相关研究的启示

长期以来,西方学者对中小学生的对抗行为进行的大量的民族志研究发现,学生所表现出的对抗行为与他们的社会阶级结构、社会角色扮演、种族、性别身份等因素密切相关。而我国这一领域的相关研究在概念使用、研究方法、研究视角及理论原创性方面都与西方研究有着较大的差异。     

Choice paths in the Swedish upper secondary education – a critical discourse analysis of recent reforms

Decentralisation policy in Sweden emphasises school capitation allowance, the local upper secondary schools’ decision‐making and pupils’ choices in contrast to previous bureaucratic governing. The aim of this article is to discuss how pupils’ educational choice paths are a part of the different kinds of integration and differentiation processes within upper secondary education. By doing so, the intention is to make a theoretical contribution to the ongoing discussion in this research field. In the light of Habermas’s theory of communicative action combined with Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis, educational choice paths have been studied as a process within three educational practices in a local quasi‐market in Sweden: (1) choice of upper secondary school, (2) choice of upper secondary programme, and (3) choice of courses and subjects within a programme. Some of the results demonstrate that pupils’ choice paths can be vocation‐oriented, career‐oriented and consumption‐oriented. It is argued that these different types of choice paths are related to a market discourse. Other results demonstrate that pupils’ group‐oriented, interest‐oriented and tradition‐oriented choice paths are built upon an active citizenship discourse, which is about creating meaning in terms of seeking knowledge and establishing social relations in upper secondary education. The analysis of these two paramount discourses indicates that pupils’ integration and differentiation processes are ambiguous.     

Streaming in Flemish secondary schools: exploring teachers’ perceptions of and adaptations to students in different streams

A rich body of research on streaming or tracking conducted mainly in the USA and UK suggests that teachers have lower expectations of students in lower education streams and adapt their curriculum and pedagogy in line with such expectations. Recent large‐scale quantitative research conducted in Flanders (Belgium) shows that teachers teaching in lower status technical/vocational streams share a lower ‘study culture’ and perceive their students as less teachable than teachers teaching higher status general education students, which in turn influences students’ educational outcomes. This research builds on these studies by using data from qualitative interviews with secondary school teachers in two Flemish secondary schools to explore teachers’ perceptions of students in different streams and their adaptations in terms of curriculum and pedagogy. In addition, the relationship between students’ educational achievement and stream allocation is analysed using survey data collected in these two Flemish schools. The results further support the findings of research in this area but also suggest that stratification occurs within streams. Furthermore, students from different streams are perceived to value different forms of cultural and social capital, suggesting the prevalence of social class cultures in different streams. The conclusions discuss implications for further research on streaming or tracking in (Flemish) secondary schools.     

School exclusions and masculine,working‐class identities

In this paper attention will be paid to issues arising from school‐based research into the experience of working‐class boys who are excluded. National and local school exclusion statistics indicate an overall gender imbalance: in the secondary school sector, for every four boys who are excluded only one girl is excluded. Furthermore, statistics show that other groups such as pupils living in poverty (as indicated by receipt of free school meals) have an increased likelihood of being excluded from school. Explanations for the disproportionate exclusion of working‐class boys are considered here in relation to three pupil case studies drawn from a group of 20 case studies gathered in four secondary schools. There are indications that the processes by which some working‐class boys actively negotiate their masculinities are the same processes that lead to their exclusion from school. This paper uses empirical data from interviews and classroom observation to analyse these twin processes, considering how and why certain masculine identities are marginalized in school settings.