Examining relative age effects on performance achievement and participation rates in Masters athletes

Abstract

Although the relative age effect has been widely observed in youth sports (Musch & Grondin, 2001 Musch, J. and Grondin, S. 2001. Unequal competition as an impediment to personal development: A review of the relative age effect in sport. Developmental Review, 21: 147–167. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), it is unclear whether it generalizes across the lifespan. The purpose of this study was to examine the relative age effect among a population of Masters athletes using archived data. Two successive studies examined the frequency of record-setting achievements (Study 1) and the frequency of participation entries (Study 2) at the US Masters track-and-field and swimming championships as a function of an individual's constituent year within any 5-year age category. Results of Study 1 indicated that the probability of setting a record increased if Masters athletes were in the first year, and decreased if they were in the third, fourth or fifth year, of an age category. Results of Study 2 indicated that the likelihood of participating in the National championships increased if Masters athletes were in the first or second year, and decreased if they were in the fourth or fifth year, of an age category. We highlight and discuss potential advantages afforded to Masters athletes who are relatively younger than their peers in the same 5-year age category.     

Participation-related relative age effects in Masters swimming: a 6-year retrospective longitudinal analysis

Medic and colleagues (Medic, Starkes, & Young, 2007) found that relatively younger cohorts of Masters athletes had higher participation rates and achieved higher performances compared with a relatively older cohort. Considering that Medic and colleagues' (2007) study was cross-sectional in nature, the purpose of this investigation was to employ a retrospective longitudinal study design to examine the participation rates of Masters swimmers as a function of an individual's constituent year within any 5-year age category over a period of 6 years. Using archived data from the 2003 to 2009 US Masters Short Course National Championships, swimmers' attendance was followed for a period of six consecutive years. Results indicated that a participation-related relative age effect was observed among swimmers who, over a period of 6 years, competed in either at least one championship (N = 2596; Cochran's Q? = 64.16, r(s) = -0.92, both P < 0.0001) or at least three championships (N = 441; Cochran's Q? = 47.51, r(s) = -0.91, both P < 0.0001). Overall, effect size analyses indicated that the odds of a Masters swimmer participating in the championship during the first constituent year of any 5-year age category was more than two times greater than the odds of that athlete participating during the fifth constituent year.     

Relative age effect and performance in the U16, U18 and U20 European Basketball Championships

This study sought to determine the association of relative age and performance of young elite basketball players. The distribution of the birth dates, heights, positions, classification and performance of the male and female participants (n = 2395) of the U16, U18 and U20 European Basketball Championships were analysed. We found an over-representation of players born during the initial months of the year in all groups, with the relative age effect being more evident in players of the U16 and U18 groups, than of the U20 teams, particularly in male squads. Nevertheless, in the U20 championships, those teams that had the oldest players performed the best. In all championships, the oldest participants played more minutes. In addition, relatively older male players scored better in total points and in performance index rating when results were normalised to played time. This effect was not found for female players. Regarding playing position, different distributions of birth dates were observed due to each position’s physical requirements. Thus, basketball coaches and managers should keep these results in mind when they select players because if not, they might subject players who are born towards the end of the year to a negative selection bias.     

影响健美操艺术加分因素的技术分析

运用等级相关分析的方法,以第４届世界健美操锦标赛各单项决赛前８名选手为主要研究对象,分析艺术加分与运动成绩和各项技术指标之间的相关性,从技术的角度探讨影响艺术加分的因素,并与我国选手进行比较。     

田径体能跳跃类项目竞赛成绩与年龄特征的相关性分析

运用文献资料法、数理统计法、逻辑分析法,对2004-2012年间参加奥运会、世锦赛男女跳高、跳远、三级跳、撑杆跳八个单项的前三名共126名运动员的竞赛成绩及其年龄特征进行统计并对其相关性进行分析,初步探讨形成这一特征的因素,为田径体能跳跃类项目的选材与训练提供参考。研究结果显示:在这四个项目中,跳远男女运动员的年龄与竞赛成绩成正相关;三级跳和撑杆跳男女运动员的年龄与竞赛成绩成负相关;跳高项目男子运动员竞赛成绩与年龄成正相关,女子运动员成负相关。因此,运动训练中应有针对性地根据不同项目、不同性别,合理地进行运动员选材、安排训练计划与人才培养,进行符合运动员自身年龄阶段特征的训练,不断挖掘其运动潜质,提高运动员竞技成绩。     

The influence of performance level,age and gender on pacing strategy during a 100-km ultramarathon

The aim of this study is to analyse the influence of performance level, age and gender on pacing during a 100-km ultramarathon. Results of a 100-km race incorporating the World Masters Championships were used to identify differences in relative speeds in each 10-km segment between participants finishing in the first, second, third and fourth quartiles of overall positions (Groups 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively). Similar analyses were performed between the top and bottom 50% of finishers in each age category, as well as within male and female categories. Pacing varied between athletes achieving different absolute performance levels. Group 1 ran at significantly lower relative speeds than all other groups in the first three 10-km segments (all P < 0.01), and significantly higher relative speeds than Group 4 in the 6th and 10th (both P < 0.01), and Group 2 in the 8th (P = 0.04). Group 4 displayed significantly higher relative speeds than Group 2 and 3 in the first three segments (all P < 0.01). Overall strategies remained consistent across age categories, although a similar phenomenon was observed within each category whereby ‘top’ competitors displayed lower relative speeds than ‘bottom’ competitors in the early stages, but higher relative speeds in the later stages. Females showed lower relative starting speeds and higher finishing speeds than males. ‘Top’ and ‘bottom’ finishing males displayed differing strategies, but this was not the case within females. Although pacing remained consistent across age categories, it differed with level of performance within each, possibly suggesting strategies are anchored on direct competitors. Strategy differs between genders and differs depending on performance level achieved in males but not females.     

Children's motivation in elementary physical education: a longitudinal study

The present study examined relationships among variables drawn from achievement goal theory and the expectancy-value model of achievement choice as well as mean level changes of these variables over time in elementary physical education. Participants (N = 207) completed questionnaires over a 2-year period: once while in the second and fourth grades and again when they were in the third and fifth grades. Results indicated that achievement goals, expectancy-related beliefs, and subjective task values were related to one another and were predictive of children's intention for future participation in physical education. Children's subjective task values of physical education decreased over time. Children in Cohort 1 (across second to third grades) generally had stronger motivation for learning in physical education than children in Cohort 2 (across fourth to fifth grades). Findings suggest the importance of integrating achievement goal theory and the expectancy-value model of achievement choice in understanding student motivation.     

Effects of a rule change that eliminates body-checking on the relative age effect in Ontario minor ice hockey

Relative age effects in sport reflect an over-representation of athletes born early in a selection year that lead to selection and performance advantages. These effects might be enhanced by rules that increase physicality. An opportunity to investigate these influences arose when Hockey Canada altered its body-checking rules. Two studies are described that investigate the possible influence of this rule change. Study 1 used cross-sectional data to contrast relative age effects for 9-year-olds in games with and without body-checking (birth quartile 1 ranged from 27 to 39%; birth quartile 4 from 10 to 20%). Study 2 used quasi-longitudinal data to examine age effects when players transitioned from a season in which body-checking was permitted to one that prohibited such checking (birth quartile 1 ranged from 27 to 39%; birth quartile 4 from 11 to 20%). Chi-square statistics demonstrated relative age effects in both studies irrespective of body-checking. Post-hoc analyses indicated reductions in these effects that were limited to some second and third quartiles when body-checking was prohibited. Body-checking is not a critical mechanism of relative age effects. The physicality of ice hockey, regardless of body-checking, and increased experience in ice hockey are influential.     

我国男排与世界强队的年龄和身体形态特征的比较研究

通过文献资料、数理统计等方法.对2010年意大利男排世锦赛8支球队运动员的年龄、身高、体重、克托莱指数和身体形态综合评分的等级评价比较分析发现:中国男子排球运动员与世锦赛7强相比,年龄、体重和克托莱指数存在非常显著性差异(P<0.01),身高不存在显著性差异(P>0.05);而身体形态综合评分的等级评价中国队最差.文章为全面揭示世锦赛8支男子排球队运动员的年龄和身体形态特征提供了理论依据,也为我国男子排球运动员的选材和实施科学化训练提供了参考依据.     

Tracking 25 years of judo results from the World Championships and Olympic Games: Age and competitive achievement

ABSTRACT

We quantified the peak age of judokas during the World Championships (WC) and Olympic Games (OG) according to sex, weight category and competitive achievement and determined the relationship between competition year and athlete age. A retrospective study including 12,005 athletes who took part in the last 16 WC and 6 OG. Athletes were divided by sex, weight category and competitive achievement. Overall, females were younger than males, and older athletes competed at the OG compared to the WC. A weight category effect was also observed, with lighter athletes being younger than heavier athletes (p < 0.05). A competitive achievement effect was found for females, with athletes being defeated in the eliminatory phases being younger than those advancing further in the competitions (p < 0.05). Significant associations (p < 0.05) were shown between competition year and age category for males at the WC and for females at both the WC and OG. In general, lighter athletes are younger than heavier ones (p < 0.05). No difference in age was found between males concerning their competitive achievement in WC and OG, whereas younger females are defeated in the eliminatory phases (p < 0.05).     

世界优秀三级跳远运动员竞技表现过程的稳定性研究

以奥运会、世界锦标赛三级跳远前8名运动员为研究对象,对三级跳远决赛过程中成功率、各轮次最优成绩的频数、有效成绩的稳定性(变异系数)等反映三级跳远竞技表现过程稳定性的参数进行分析。结果表明:近年来男女冠军成绩和前8名平均成绩相对稳定在一定区间;6轮次试跳成功率总体趋势是逐渐降低,前3轮成功率相对高于后3轮,男运动员下降得更为明显,男运动员的成功率在第1轮出现高峰,女运动员的成功率则在第2轮和第6轮出现高峰;男、女运动员在6个轮次中最优成绩的频数没有明显差异,但男、女前3名运动员的最优成绩多数是在后3轮创造的;三级跳远项目有效成绩的稳定性总体较好,但有一定的个体差异,参赛环境的变化对稳定性有一定影响。     

When "where" is more important than "when": birthplace and birthdate effects on the achievement of sporting expertise

In this study, we assessed whether contextual factors related to where or when an athlete is born influence their likelihood of playing professional sport. The birthplace and birth month of all American players in the National Hockey League, National Basketball Association, Major League Baseball, and Professional Golfer's Association, and all Canadian players in the National Hockey League were collected from official websites. Monte Carlo simulations were used to verify if the birthplace of these professional athletes deviated in any systematic way from the official census population distribution, and chi-square analyses were conducted to determine whether the players' birth months were evenly distributed throughout the year. Results showed a birthplace bias towards smaller cities, with professional athletes being over-represented in cities of less than 500,000 and under-represented in cities of 500,000 and over. A birth month/relative age effect (in the form of a distinct bias towards elite athletes being relatively older than their peers) was found for hockey and baseball but not for basketball and golf. Comparative analyses suggested that contextual factors associated with place of birth contribute more influentially to the achievement of an elite level of sport performance than does relative age and that these factors are essentially independent in their influences on expertise development.     

第13届世界女篮锦标赛大前锋进攻的特点

通过对1998年5～6月在德国举行的第13届世界女篮锦标赛部分大前锋进攻特点的研究，从中揭示出本届世界女篮大前锋进攻特点，探究女篮大前锋进攻技术、比赛运用诸方面的发展趋向，为我国女篮大前锋的选材、训练与使用提供理论与实践依据。     

Pacing profiles and pack running at the IAAF World Half Marathon Championships

The aim of this study was to describe the pacing profiles and packing behaviour of athletes competing in the IAAF World Half Marathon Championships. Finishing and split times were collated for 491 men and 347 women across six championships. The mean speeds for each intermediate 5 km and end 1.1 km segments were calculated, and athletes grouped according to finishing time. The best men and women largely maintained their split speeds between 5 km and 15 km, whereas slower athletes had decreased speeds from 5 km onwards. Athletes were also classified by the type of packing behaviour in which they engaged. Those who ran in packs throughout the race had smaller decreases in pace than those who did not, or who managed to do so only to 5 km. While some athletes’ reduced speeds from 15 to 20 km might have been caused by fatigue, it was also possibly a tactic to aid a fast finish that was particularly beneficial to medallists. Those athletes who ran with the same competitors throughout sped up most during the finish. Athletes are advised to identify rivals likely to have similar abilities and ambitions and run with them as part of their pre-race strategy.     

第26届世界体操锦标赛女子比赛述评——兼析世界女子体操技术发展与训练的特点

本届锦标赛作为第25届奥运会前的“热身赛”,强手云集,争夺激烈。前苏联运动员仍保持领先地位;中国队实力有所下降。     

Measuring athlete imagery ability: the sport imagery ability questionnaire

This research aimed to develop and provide initial validation of the Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ). The SIAQ assesses athletes' ease of imaging different types of imagery content. Following an extensive pilot study, 375 athletes completed a 20-item SIAQ in Study 1. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 4-factor model assessing skill, strategy, goal, and affect imagery ability. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) established this 4-factor structure in Study 2 (N = 363 athletes). In Study 3 (N = 438 athletes), additional items were added to create a fifth mastery imagery subscale that was confirmed through CFA. Study 4 (N = 220 athletes) compared the SIAQ to the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3. Significant bivariate correlations (p < .05) confirmed the SIAQ's concurrent validity but demonstrated differences in imagery ability of different content. Overall, the SIAQ demonstrates good factorial validity, internal and temporal reliability, invariance across gender, and an ability to distinguish among athletes of different competitive levels. Findings highlight the importance of separately assessing imagery ability of different content.     

国家皮划艇队运动员大赛前后生理和生化指标变化初探

目的:了解大型比赛对运动员生理生化指标变化的影响,分析比赛与人体内分泌之间的关系。方法:参加世界锦标赛的国家皮划艇队运动员12人,在赛前3周与赛后l周,测量形态指标及内分泌指标的变化。结果:世锦赛后。无论男划组还是女皮组,比赛前后肱三头肌与肩胛下皮褶厚度均无显著性差异(P>0.05):体重、腰围及臀围也无明显变化(P>0.05)。赛后睾酮、皮质醇及促甲状腺激素出现了明显的下降(P<0.05),而游离T4明显上升(P<0.05)。结论:赛前训练与比赛期间的高强度专项活动对身体的刺激,能影响内分泌的代谢。     

世界优秀女子铁饼运动员竞技特征研究

以奥运会、世界锦标赛女子铁饼前8名运动员为研究对象。运用文献资料法、统计法归纳法和个案研究,对决赛过程中成功率、各轮次最优成绩的频数、有效成绩的稳定性(变异系数)等反映铁饼竞技表现的参数进行分析。主要结论:世界优秀女子铁饼运动员平均发挥率为98.05%,超水平发挥率为18.75%;2004～2011年间的奥运会、田径锦标赛中,女子铁饼夺冠成绩在65.50±1m左右波动,前8名的平均成绩在63.8±1.5m左右波动;决赛从第1轮到第6轮,成功率总体趋势是逐渐降低,后3轮成功率明显低于前3轮;在6轮次创造最优成绩的频数无显著性差异(P=0.535>0.05);女子铁饼项目总体稳定性不高,有效成绩平均变异系数为2.30%,不同的参赛环境对运动员虽有一定的影响,但运动员的主观发挥对稳定性的影响是主要的;李艳凤正处于最佳竞技年龄阶段,2011年夺冠是强大实力和稳定技术表现的结果,但伦敦要再创造辉煌,必须在现有实力的基础上,必须进一步提高临场发挥率,狠抓前3轮的高水平发挥。     

PPARA intron 1 A/C polymorphism and elite athlete status

Abstract

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) is involved in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. The aim of this study was to test for a possible association between the PPARA intron 1 A/C polymorphism (rs135539) and the attainment of elite athlete status. In total, 155 Israeli athletes (119 males, 36 females) and 240 healthy controls (170 males, 70 females) participated in the study. The group of athletes consisted of endurance athletes (n=74) and sprinters (n=81). Genotyping was performed using PCR-RFLP on DNA from leucocytes. Results showed that genotype distribution and allele frequencies were similar (P=0.65 for genotypes and P=0.48 for allele frequency) for the endurance athletes (allele frequency A/C 0.7/0.3), sprinters (allele frequency A/C 0.66/0.34), and controls (allele frequency A/C 0.71/0.29). Furthermore, no significant differences were observed between the sub-groups of elite endurance athletes (those who had represented Israel in world track-and-field championships or in the Olympic Games) and national-level endurance athletes (P=0.44 for genotypes and P=0.96 for allele frequency), or between elite and national-level sprinters (P=0.57 for genotypes and P=0.40 for allele frequency). In conclusion, we observed no differences in genotype distribution or allele frequencies across PPARA intron 1 A/C polymorphism between endurance athletes, sprinters, and controls. Further research is needed in other ethnic groups to verify these results.     

竞技武术套路运动员转项成才个案研究

文章主要运用深度访谈法,通过以2009年空手道世界锦标赛个人型项目季军黄少青为访谈对象进行个案研究,对竞技武术套路运动员成功转项为空手道个人型项目运动员并获得优异成绩的现象进行初步的探究与分析。结论认为：竞技武术套路运动员转为空手道个人型项目运动员有很大的优势,也存在困难;通过转项后的刻苦训练成才的希望大,且成才年限较短;转项之初的心理压力要及时调整。