Motivation to learn as an outcome and determining factor of learning at school

This article defines and measures interest in lifelong learning in an effort to capture motivation as an outcome of schooling. As a school-internal counterpart, motivational orientations toward learning at school in general and toward mathematics learning in particular are introduced, based on Deci and Ryan’s theory of self-determination. Analysis within the Swiss TIMSS samples in lower and upper secondary education led to the definition of five such orientations with a constant structure across grades and levels of generality. Some orientations show a concrete focus like long-term utility. The validity of these constructs is examined by analysing the relation among these motivational orientations, their relationship to interest in lifelong learning and mathematics achievement as well as age and gender differences. As hypothesised, the higher a motivational orientation’s degree of self-determination, the higher is its correlation with interest in lifelong learning and mathematics achievement. Among age and gender differences, the contrasting behaviour of intrinsic and long-term utility orientation toward mathematics is notable. For example, the gender difference in long-term utility but not in intrinsic orientation increases from grade 6 to grade 8. These findings can be understood as an expression of gender-typical vocational aspirations which define technical and scientific fields as a domain for males and not for females.     

Coming to Terms with Motivation Constructs

The field of motivation is beset with a lack of clear definition of motivational constructs and specification of their operation within larger theoretical frameworks. These problems have implications for interpretation of research results and applications to practice. The articles in this collection represent an important step in attaining greater clarity. Future research should be directed toward clarifying conditions under which motivational constructs predict achievement behavior, delineating the role of social processes in motivation, and exploring long-term motivation in the face of obstacles and competing demands. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.     

Motivational aspects of community support for school‐based comprehensive sexuality education

Various surveys have documented widespread support among US parents, students, teachers and health professionals for school‐based comprehensive sexuality education. In many school districts, however, the sexuality education provided is minimal, incomplete or fragmented, and essential topics are often omitted or inaccurately presented. To help explain the discrepancy between support and accomplishment, this study develops a set of theory‐based research hypotheses regarding the potential motivational roles of stakeholders' goals, emotions and personal agency belief patterns in explaining this lack of achievement. A series of exploratory interviews and focus groups with 36 California parents, adolescents and professionals was conducted. A modified grounded‐theory approach was used to guide the collection and analysis of qualitative data, and the development of a theoretical framework anchored in Martin Ford's motivational systems theory. This framework suggests the complexity of the interacting factors involved, and provides a basis for specific hypotheses for further research. Potentially important goals, emotions and personal agency belief patterns are identified and discussed.     

A PRELIMINARY TYPOLOGY OF MOTIVATIONAL ORIENTATIONS OF COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS

The purpose of this study was to identify the reasons students were enrolled in individual courses at one metropolitan community college. Unstructured interviews, supplemented by participant observation, were used to collect data on students in eight transfer and occupational day classes observed in Fall 1980. On the basis of their motivational orientations toward individual courses, most students were classified as requirement meeters, knowledge seekers, or specific information users. These three motivational orientations were compared along three dimensions: (1) the student's major criterion of success, (2) the aspect (instrumental or expressive) of education the student emphasized, and (3) the willingness of the student to tolerate a time‐lag prior to the application of acquired knowledge and/or skills. Less common motivational orientations also were identified. The data showed that students could be guided by more than one motivational orientation or change their initial motivational orientation toward a course as the result of classroom experiences. The modal type of student in this sample was a requirement meeter. Requirement meeters establish norms whereby students derive status by spending as little time as possible on school‐related matters.     

FACTORS AFFECTING FEMALE TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD HELP‐SEEKING OR HELP‐AVOIDANCE IN COPING WITH BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS

Questionnaires were given to 392 elementary school teachers to examine help‐seeking or help‐avoidance in dealing with classroom behavioral problems. Scale validity was examined through a series of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Using a series of multivariate regression analyses and structural equation modeling, we identified predictors of motivational goals, predictors of attitudes toward help‐seeking or help‐avoidance, and a model of teachers’ attitudes toward help‐seeking or help‐avoidance. Results revealed four types of attitudes. Two reflected a positive approach to seeking help, but for different reasons: the first is intended to end the confrontation rapidly, and the second strives to develop new coping abilities. Also, two avoidant behaviors intended to avoid seeking help were revealed: one from fear of failure, and the other from a desire to deal with the problems independently. These four positions support a model of teacher help‐seeking, where seeking or avoiding help arises from a combination of implicit theories, efficacy beliefs, and motivational goals. Suggestions for further research into motivational factors of teachers when seeking help in coping with behavioral problems are suggested, as well as a call for a renewed consideration of the effectiveness of teacher support mechanisms.     

动机的自我决定理论在行为改变中的应用

动机的自我决定理论是由美国心理学家Deci和Ryan提出的动机过程理论。它不是把动机看作一个单一的概念,也不是把动机简单地区分为内部动机和外部动机,而是把动机看作一个连续体,从外部动机到内部动机需要经历三个内化程度不同的中间水平。近来的研究者发现,动机水平不同对行为改变效果的影响不同。在此理论的基础上,Ryan提出一个行为改变和保持的模型。同时,研究者还发现基于自我决定理论的心理治疗与动机性访谈技术有很多相似之处,且他们可以相互补充。     

Peer and teacher influences on the motivational climate in physical education: A longitudinal perspective on achievement goal adoption

This study examined the temporal patterns and concurrent effects of teachers and peers on the motivational climate to student’s achievement goal adoption in the physical education (PE) classroom. On three occasions, over the course of one school year, 655 students in Years 7, 8, and 9 of a secondary school completed measures of approach-avoidance goal adoption, perceptions of the teacher-created motivational climate and perceptions of the peer-created motivational climate in PE. Measures were taken towards the end of each school term. Perceptions of a teacher mastery climate were found to decrease over the course of the school year, while perceptions of a peer performance climate increased. Multilevel analyses considered the intraindividual, interindividual and interclass levels and revealed that perceptions of both the teacher and peer climate influenced student achievement goal adoption over the course of the school year. The findings indicate that future research would benefit from incorporating peer as well as teacher influences on the motivational climate in order to understand the dynamics of student motivation in the PE classroom.     

Stability and change in achievement goal orientations: A person-centered approach

Two longitudinal studies used a person-centered approach to examine the stability and change in students’ achievement goal orientations within a school year (i.e., during 9th grade; measurement period 4 months, N = 530) and between school years (i.e., across 11th and 12th grade; measurement period 12 months, N = 519). Distinct groups of students with different motivational profiles were extracted in both studies with considerable consistency in profiles across the two academic contexts (i.e., lower and upper secondary school). Four groups of students were identified in both studies: indifferent, success-oriented, mastery-oriented, and avoidance-oriented. Students’ motivational profiles were substantially stable; about 60% of all students displayed a stable motivational profile over time. Furthermore, most changes in the group memberships were directed towards similar groups. Findings support the conception of achievement goal orientation as an enduring disposition that reflects students’ generalized beliefs and tendencies to select certain goals and to favor certain outcomes.     

How can primary school students learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively?: A meta-analysis on self-regulation training programmes

Recently, research has increasingly focused on fostering self-regulated learning amongst young children. To consider this trend, this article presents the results of a differentiated meta-analysis of 48 treatment comparisons resulting from 30 articles on enhancing self-regulated learning amongst primary school students. Based on recent models of self-regulated learning, which consider motivational, as well as cognitive, and metacognitive aspects [Boekaerts, M. (1999). Self-regulated learning: Where we are today. International Journal of Educational research, 31(6), 445-457], the effects of self-regulated learning on academic achievement, on cognitive and metacognitive strategy application, as well as on motivation were analyzed. As the results show, self-regulated learning training programmes proved to be effective, even at primary school level. Subsequent analysis tested for the effects of several moderator variables, which consisted of study features and training characteristics. Regarding factors that concern the content of the treatment, the impact of the theoretical background that underlies the intervention was tested, as well as the type of cognitive, metacognitive, or motivational strategy which were instructed, and if group work was used as instruction method. Training context related factors, which were included in the analyses consisted of students’ grade level, the length of the training, if teachers or researchers directed the intervention, as well as the school subject in which context the training took place. Following the results of these analyses, a list with the most effective training characteristics was provided.     

An Exploratory Case Study of Dutch Children's Attitudes Toward Consumption: Implications for Environmental Education

This critical essay based on empirical study draws upon research on the differences in attitudes toward consumption among Dutch upper-elementary school children with different socioeconomic backgrounds. This article examines two strands of theory: critical literature on the conceptualization and practice of sustainable consumption, and the theory of postmaterialist values. By synthesizing these strands of theory the author outlines a number of paradoxes and challenges in theory and practice of consumption and lays a foundation for teaching sustainable consumption at the upper-elementary school level. The Cradle-to-Cradle framework is proposed as a form of strategically significant environmental education that can be used for teaching consumption.     

The role of autonomy supportive activities on students’ motivation and beliefs toward out-of-school activities

Physical education in elementary education usually provides children’s first contact with sports. According to the trans-contextual model of motivation, physical education teachers can positively influence children’s beliefs toward and actual leisure time physical activity behavior. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of a dance-based physical education program on motivation regarding physical education lesson participation, as well as leisure time physical activity participation. The sample consisted of 252 pupils attending Grades 5 and 6 of elementary school (M_age?=?10.48 years, SD?=?0.50 years). Participants were randomly assigned into three groups. The first group attended a physical education lesson based on various forms of dance, the second one attended lessons with Greek traditional dances only, and the third group served as active control group that attended the typical curriculum. The intervention lasted six weeks. Before and after the intervention, students completed survey-based measures of motivational climate, motivational regulations in physical education and leisure time, enjoyment, attitudes, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and intentions toward leisure time physical activity. In support of the trans-contextual model, results showed that students in the dance intervention programs scored significantly higher in perceptions of motivational climate and beliefs toward leisure time physical activity. The findings of the study suggest that dancing lessons at school can bolster more positive attitudes and beliefs toward physical education and leisure time physical activity.     

Within‐year changes in Chinese secondary school students' perceived reading instruction and intrinsic reading motivation

This study aimed to expand on existing research about motivational change by investigating within‐year changes of adolescents' intrinsic reading motivation and perceived reading instruction among students from different grades and achievement levels. Six hundred and ninety five students from 10 secondary schools in Hong Kong voluntarily completed a questionnaire that measured these two variables at the beginning and near the end of a school year. The study's findings indicated that students' intrinsic reading motivation was generally stable over a school year. A significant increase in the perceived degree of mastery goal structure in reading instruction was observed near the end of the school year. Students' perception of instruction remained a strong and positive predictor of intrinsic motivation after controlling their prior motivation and other background variables. Different factors affecting students' motivational change are discussed to provide insights for promoting their reading motivation and counter the prevalent trend of motivational decline.     

Doubling mental rotation scores in high school students: Effects of motivational and strategic trainings

Achievement in mathematics, science, biology, chemistry, and other school subjects requiring abstract reasoning on spatial relationships is favored by mental rotation abilities, that is by the capability to mentally manipulate objects in space. This suggests the need to develop effective trainings aimed at improving mental rotation performance. Previous research focused mostly on practice with spatial tasks. Since motivational beliefs, gender stereotypes and self-confidence can affect performance, this research tested the hypothesis that a training including motivational aspects will be effective as well. Two intervention studies with high school students (n = 122 and n = 70 respectively) confirmed that a three-session-training based on allowing practice in adopting a holistic strategy to solve the mental rotation items or on fostering effective motivational beliefs increased the mental rotation scores up to 1 SD. The discussion focuses on the characteristics of effective trainings aimed at improving mental rotation abilities in high school students.     

The long arm of work: A motivational conflict perspective on teacher strain

Teacher strain is seen typically as a phenomenon within the job domain. Drawing on effort-recovery theory as well as on research on work–family conflict and motivational interference, we propose that intrapsychic conflict between different life domains also contributes to teachers' emotional exhaustion. Findings based on self-reports of 234 teachers show that particularly the negative impact of work on teachers' private life related positively to their emotional exhaustion, and that this effect is mostly mediated by motivational interference effects in the social domain. Hence, adequate leisure experiences and detachment from work seem to be crucial to prevent prolonged emotional strain.     

Using Solution-Focused Approaches in Motivational Interviewing with Young People

This article explores the theory and practice of using the solution-focused approach of motivational interviewing (MI) with young people. MI is based on the premise that people are not always at a stage of readiness to change behaviours, such as smoking, drinking or drug use, which are perceived by others to be problematic. The article explores the theoretical and research background to the approach as well as the practical application. There then follows an illustrative case study of the work with a boy approximately 12 years old. The article concludes with a critical look at the work and suggestions for its potential application in schools. The authors conclude that this is a useful approach and recommend further research in educational settings.     

Motivational Characteristics in Mathematical Achievement: a study of gifted high‐achieving,gifted underachieving and non‐gifted pupils

The aim of this study was to examine whether motivational‐emotional variables such as intrinsic orientation toward schoolwork, Mathematics anxiety, academic self‐esteem, attribution of success and failure in Mathematics and situational interest in Mathematics could differentiate different groups of mathematically gifted pupils. The research was based, theoretically, on an interactional model of giftedness. The sample consisted of 147 selected primary school pupils (9‐10 years of age) who were assigned to the following groups for comparison: mathematically gifted achievers (n = 31), mathematically gifted under‐achievers (n = 31) and mathematically non‐gifted pupils (n = 85). The results of a discriminant analysis show that the gifted pupils differ from the non‐gifted ones in attaining higher levels of intrinsic orientation toward Mathematics, lower Mathematics anxiety, lower attribution of success to external factors and effort, as well as in lower attribution of failure to external factors and abilities. Also, gifted achievers have lower attribution of success to effort than gifted under‐achievers and non‐gifted pupils.     

学校变革的复杂性探析:复杂科学的视角

复杂科学的兴起和发展,为我们认识和理解当前的学校及其变革过程提供了一个新的视角。当前,整体性的学校变革已经逐渐成为我国教育改革的一个趋势,为此,迫切需要冲破对于学校变革简单性认识的束缚,用复杂性思维去分析学校及其变革过程的复杂性,从而为进一步推进学校的深度变革奠定一个坚实的理论基础。     

Silenced Memories: An Examination of the Sociocultural Knowledge on Race and Racial Violence in Official School Curriculum

Drawing from the theoretical lenses of cultural memory and critical race theory, we examined how elementary level and middle school level social studies textbooks represent the history of racial violence directed toward African Americans and resistance to this violence in the U.S. Using a literary analysis method, we found that textbooks often presented vivid accounts; however, these narratives often presented these acts as detached from the larger structural and institutional ties that supported and subsequently benefited from these actions. We contend that this limited representation of racial violence has an adverse effect on the larger sociocultural memory and sociocultural knowledge available to students, thus limiting the extent to which students can fully understand the legacy of racism and racial inequity in the U.S.     

Can a school change its spots? The first year of transforming to an innovative school

Transforming into an innovative school is one of the strategies schools apply when facing changes in a turbulent environment. In the first year of such a transformation these schools face an essential dilemma: how to facilitate changes without jeopardizing their environmental legitimacy. Examining an Israeli elementary school as an instrumental case study through two theoretical frameworks—institutional theory and resource dependence theory—we found two ways in which the school faces this dilemma. First it seals its technical core while demonstrating the innovation by symbolical practises, and second, it employs buffering and bridging tactics in its reciprocal relations with its various partners according to the nature of their expectations. We conclude that the question is not why innovation does not change a school, but why a school needs innovation in order to change and improve. Further research directions and implications for innovative schools are discussed.