Making sense of teaching through metaphors: a review across three studies

The purpose of this paper is to synthesize findings from three studies that have addressed the conceptualization and application of the metaphor construct to the study of teachers and teaching. With respect to the perspectives of elementary and secondary preservice teachers, we specifically examined how the particular metaphors they used indicated conceptualizations of and orientations to classroom life, and how these metaphors influenced teachers' approaches to teaching, curriculum, and their work with pupils. We frame the discussion in light of the larger literature on the relationship of teachers' beliefs and practices as it relates to learning to teach and teacher education. The paper provides implications for linking the research reported with contemporary ideas for teaching and teacher preparation.     

Instrumentality,task value,and intrinsic motivation: Making sense of their independent interdependence

The relationships among instrumentality, task value, and intrinsic orientation were investigated among undergraduate students. The sample comprised 207 undergraduates who were participating in a lower-division human development course. Results confirm that endogenous instrumentality is an independent construct, which—although related to task value and intrinsic motivation—is empirically and theoretically distinguishable. Results suggest that the present orientation of intrinsic motivation and task value (as measured by the MSLQ) may serve a different motivational function than the more future oriented endogenous instrumentality.     

Making sense of disability: low-income, Puerto Rican parents' theories of the problem.

This article reports findings from an ethnographic study of the views of 12 low-income Puerto Rican parents whose children were classified as learning disabled or mildly mentally retarded. Different cultural meanings of disability and normalcy led parents to reject the notion of disability and focus on the impact of family identity, language confusion, and detrimental educational practices on children's school performance. Parents' views were in line with current arguments against labeling and English-only instruction.     

Making sense out of measurement non-invariance: how to explore differences among educational systems in international large-scale assessments

International large-scale assessment in education aims to compare educational achievement across many countries. Differences between countries in language, culture, and education give rise to differential item functioning (DIF). For many decades, DIF has been regarded as a nuisance and a threat to validity. In this paper, we take a different stance and argue that DIF holds essential information about the differences between countries. To uncover this information, we explore the use of multivariate analysis techniques as ways to analyze DIF emphasizing visualization. PISA 2012 data are used for illustration.

     

Making sense of students' science: The construction of a model of tinkering

The science which students bring to the classroom has received a lot of research attention in recent years. These studies have focused on the investigation of children's conceptualisation of scientific phenomena. The present study brought a wider perspective by also seeking to describe the intuitive methods which students learn from their everyday experiences. The focus was on one method by which some students acquire their prior experiences, namely tinkering. Specifically, the nature of tinkering was explored within the context of one area of physical science, electricity. The findings therefore add a new dimension to our understanding of the science that students bring to the classroom. The results offer this clarification by proposing a model of tinkering.     

Making sense of number sense: implications for children with mathematical disabilities

Drawing on various approaches to the study of mathematics learning, Gersten, Jordan, and Flojo (in this issue) explore the implications of this research for identifying children at risk for developing mathematical disabilities. One of the key topics Gersten et al. consider in their review is that of "number sense." I expand on their preliminary effort by examining in detail the diverse set of components purported to be encompassed by this construct. My analysis reveals some major differences between the ways in which number sense is defined in the mathematical cognition literature and its definition in the literature in mathematics education. I also present recent empirical evidence and theoretical perspectives bearing on the importance of measuring the speed of making magnitude comparisons. Finally, I discuss how differing conceptions of number sense inform the issue of whether and to what extent it may be teachable.     

Empowerment and relationships: A classroom model to enhance student motivation

This project focused on the goal of establishing a classroom model of motivation in which the source of student motivation is based on internal mechanisms or structures, along with the establishment of greater self-regulatory opportunities for students, and which results in greater student empowerment and motivation. One-hundred current elementary and secondary teachers and 100 university preservice teacher education students completed a 40-item Likert-type questionnaire that focused on four classroom dimensions of affirmation, rejection, student empowerment and teacher control. The results of this project suggested that, although veteran and preservice teachers agreed on the need for teacher control in the classroom, there was less agreement about their perceptions of the need to create a classroom environment of positive affirmation and student empowerment. Implications for future research and the need for creating an affirming, empowering, motivational classroom environment are discussed in light of the limitations for teachers and schools to encourage these constructs associated with recent federal legislative policies.     

Implicit theories,epistemic beliefs,and science motivation: A person-centered approach

The purpose of this study was to explore (a) the individual belief profiles that naturally arise among middle and high school science students (n = 1225); (b) the relationships between these profiles to science achievement and other prominent motivation variables; and (c) the demographic and developmental differences among the belief profiles. Results revealed that a four-class solution fit the data the best. These profiles were differentially related to achievement goal orientations, science self‐efficacy, and science achievement. Differences in profiles also arose as a function of minority status, grade level, and gender. Findings support and refine Schommer-Aikins's (2004) Embedded Systemic Model of epistemic beliefs. Results are discussed in relation to theory and implications for science instruction.     

The student-as-bricoleur: Making sense of research paradigms

Although there is consensus that qualitative approaches to social research are distinguished from quantitative approaches by their fundamental philosophical systems, there is resistance to incorporating philosophical distinctions into graduate level research courses. Resistance may be due to the recognition that students have limited experience with, and are intimidated by, the philosophy of science. This study was conducted to examine how students interpret and process the philosophical distinctions associated with research paradigms in the hope of identifying instructional strategies that may facilitate student appreciation of the philosophical distinctions.A multiple case study was conducted with three sections of a doctoral level introduction to qualitative research course during the 1999–2000 academic year. Data for this investigation included demographic characteristics gathered from the university's student information system, and a written exercise in which students are asked to reflect upon the philosophical concepts associated with three research paradigms presented in course readings and class discussion, and to formulate their own personal philosophies of research.Findings suggest that students readily acquire a basic understanding of major philosophical concepts associated with paradigmatic distinctions, and are generally comfortable with the coexistence of multiple research paradigms. However, they have difficulty seeing the logical relationships between philosophical concepts. According to the Reflective Judgment Model [Kitchener, K. S., & King, P. M. (1990). The Reflective Judgment Model: Transforming assumptions about knowledge. In: Mezirow, J., & Associates (Eds.), Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to transformative and emancipatory learning (pp. 159–176). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.], the reasoning strategies demonstrated by these students are consistent with those of undergraduate college seniors, master's level students, and advanced level graduate students. Instructional strategies that reinforce the strengths of the strategies used at these levels and encourage the development of more advanced strategies are described. Implications of these findings show promise for preparing the “researcher-as-interpreter bricoleur” as described by Denzin and Lincoln (2000)[ Paradigms and perspectives in transition. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.) (pp. 155-162). Thousand Oaks: Sage] that understands and can discuss the philosophical assumptions of all research paradigms.     

语感问题寻绎:内隐认知和缄默知识理论的视角

从内隐认知理论和缄默知识理论角度看,语感有三维内涵的概念:一指的是学习主体在进行言语活动时对语言知识和言语知识的内隐学习;二指的是学习主体内隐学习的结果,是关于语言和言语的缄默知识;三指的是言语主体凭借内隐记忆,对处于潜意识中的语文知识的无意识运用.培养语感应注意实践感受与调控指导相结合,读听理解与说写表达相结合,感性积累与理性分析相结合,语感培养与人格塑造相结合.     

Computer-supported aids to making sense of scientific articles: cognitive, motivational, and attitudinal effects

High school students can access original scientific research articles on the Internet, but may have trouble understanding them. To address this problem of online literacy, the authors developed a computer-based prototype for guiding students’ comprehension of scientific articles. High school students were asked to read an original scientific research article about the effects of drug or alcohol abuse, which was presented on a computer screen either with computer-based comprehension aids or without aids. The aids provided background text and animations including answers given by the article authors. Across two experiments involving different schools and different research articles, the comprehension aids group performed better than the control group on a comprehension test concerning the article (d = +0.79 in Experiment 1 and d = +0.82 in Experiment 2) and rated the content of article as less difficult to read (d = +0.96 in Experiment 1 and d = +0.69 in Experiment 2). In addition, the comprehension aids group reported more positive motivational beliefs than the control group concerning understanding what scientists do (d = +0.51 in Experiment 1 and d = +0.56 in Experiment 2), appraising the article as worthwhile (d = +0.80 for Experiment 1 and d = +0.70 for Experiment 2), and being interested in reading another research article (d = +0.19 in Experiment 1 and d = +0.58 in Experiment 2). The groups did not differ on their attitudes concerning a career as a scientist or about alcohol and drug abuse. Overall, computer-based comprehension aids can help guide students’ comprehension processes for an original scientific research article, which in turn can improve their appreciation of what scientists do.

A motivational model of persistence in science education: A self-determination theory approach

The purpose of this study was to propose and test a motivational model of persistence in science education. The model posits that science teachers’ support of students’ autonomy positively influences students’ self-perceptions of autonomy and competence. These self-perceptions, in turn, have a positive impact on students’ self-determined motivation toward science which leads to their intentions to pursue science education and eventually work in a scientific domain. This model was tested with high school students (n=728). Results from univariate analyses of variance and from structural equation modeling analyses (with LISREL) were found to support the proposed model. In addition, a direct link was obtained between perceptions of competence and intentions to pursue a science education, indicating that higher levels of perceived competence predicted higher levels of persistence intentions. The present findings support Self-Determination Theory and open the way to future research from a motivational approach in this area.     

Short-term motivation trajectories: A parallel process model of expectancy-value

Motivation plays a critical role in human behavior and is particularly important during college, where a single class can make or break an academic career. The longitudinal research on expectancies for success and utility value primarily focuses on prediction or change over many years, rather than change over a short period of time. However, a single class in college can often be the difference between getting a degree or not. To better understand how motivation progresses in the short-term, we examined changes in expectancy and utility value simultaneously during a single college class. Both constructs declined during the class and showed significant variability across individuals. In addition, change in expectancy was strongly correlated with change in utility value, and the expectancy slope estimates were significant predictors of continuing interest. We discuss the need for a better understanding of short-term dynamic relationships between expectancies, utility value, and outcomes.     

Nonscience majors learning science: A theoretical model of motivation

A theoretical model of nonscience majors' motivation to learn science was tested by surveying 369 students in a large‐enrollment college science course that satisfies a core curriculum requirement. Based on a social‐cognitive framework, motivation to learn science was conceptualized as having both cognitive and affective influences that foster science achievement. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the hypothesized relationships among the variables. The students' motivation, as measured by the Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ), had a strong direct influence on their achievement, as measured by their science grade point average. The students' motivation was influenced by their belief in the relevance of science to their careers. This belief was slightly stronger in women than men. Essays by the students and interviews with them provided insight into their motivation. The model suggests that instructors should strategically connect science concepts to the careers of nonscience majors through such means as case studies to increase motivation and achievement. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 44: 1088–1107, 2007