Principles of Integrated Instruction for Engagement in Reading

Our purpose in this article is to propose a set of design principles to serve as a structural framework for enhancing engagement in reading. We provide a rationale for our emphasis on engagement, which we believe is an important aim of reading instruction. We discuss the sources of the proposed design principles. These design principles consist of a set of features of the classroom context including: conceptual themes, real-world interactions, self-direction, interesting texts, social collaboration, self-expression, cognitive strategy instruction, time for engaged reading, and coherence. We present empirical support from the educational psychology literature for each principle. For illustration, we provide a brief depiction of each principle functioning within a framework of Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI). We emphasize that each principle is dependent on several others, and we describe how the functioning of each principle is contingent on the occurrence of several affiliated principles in the vignettes of CORI.     

Toward a set of design principles for mathematics flipped classrooms: A synthesis of research in mathematics education

This paper analyzed the journal publications of mathematics flipped classroom studies in K-12 and higher education contexts. We focused specifically on a set of flipped classroom studies in which pre-class instructional videos were provided prior to face-to-face class meetings. We examined the following four major issues: (a) the types of out-of-class and in-class instructional activities used, (b) the effect of flipped learning on student achievement, (c) the participant perceptions of flipped classroom benefits, and (d) the main challenges of flipped classroom implementations. A meta-analysis of 21 comparison studies showed an overall significant effect in favor of the flipped classroom over the traditional classroom for mathematics education (Hedges' g = 0.298, 95% CI [0.16, 0.44]), with no evidence of publication bias. A broader research synthesis of 61 studies revealed that the flipped classroom approach benefited student learning in three main aspects: increasing in-class time for task/practice, integrating new knowledge with existing beliefs, and real-time feedback. The two most frequently reported flipped classroom challenges were students' unfamiliarity with flipped learning and significant start-up effort on the part of instructors. We hence propose a set of design principles to help foster the transition to the flipped classroom and improve the out-of-class and in-class learning designs. This set of design principles can also provide a more focused agenda for future research to examine the effect of the flipped classroom approach on student learning and motivation.     

‘Well I don't feel that’: Schemas,worlds and authentic reading in the classroom

This article explores reading in the English classroom through a cognitive linguistic lens. In particular, we consider how students' ability to engage with a text, which we term authentic reading, can be facilitated or restricted. We draw on two case studies featuring Year 7 students working with the novel Holes (Sachar 2000), and the short story ‘The man who shouted Teresa' (Calvino 1996) respectively, and argue for the benefits of using cognitive linguistics as a tool for teachers and researchers to ‘think with’ when considering reading in the classroom.     

Some Key Pedagogic Principles for Helping ELLs to Succeed in School

In this article, we put forward 4 pedagogic principles that we consider to be particularly important in helping English language learners (ELLs) to succeed in school. These principles are: creating multiple and varied opportunities for ELLs to use the target language in both speech and writing, promoting high engagement by building on students' interests, connecting the curriculum to ELLs' lives and their funds of knowledge, and working toward a tangible goal. We illustrate these principles in action by presenting 2 case studies drawn from our research. They show how the teachers with whom we worked used these principles to meet their students' needs in two demographically different classroom contexts.     

Prevention and Intervention in Beginning Reading: Two Complex Systems

This paper addresses two sets of organizing principles to guide prevention and intervention in beginning reading: (a) the complexity in our alphabetic writing system, and (b) the complexity in our schools. The first set is related to instructional design, while the second set is related to a schoolwide model. Prevention and intervention efforts in beginning reading for students with learning disabilities must attend to 2 systems, our complex alphabetic writing system and our equally complex schools. In this article, we present 2 sets of organizing principles to guide prevention and intervention in beginning reading drawn from the substantial body of converging research evidence accumulated over the past 40 years. The first set consists of 6 instructional design principles focused on teaching reading in our alphabetic writing system. These principles include big ideas, mediated scaffolding, conspicuous strategies, strategic integration, primed background knowledge, and judicious review. The second set includes organizational principles designed to anchor effective reading practices at the school‐building level. These principles are structured around 3 interrelated areas: (1) the schoolwide establishment of long‐term reading goals and intermediate performance benchmarks, (2) the early identification and frequent monitoring of students experiencing reading difficulties, and (3) the development of coordinated and differentiated instructional interventions for the full range of learners.     

Cognition Research in Practice: Engineering and Evaluating a Middle School Math Curriculum

Abstract

How can research findings from cognitive and learning sciences be meaningfully applied in authentic settings to improve student learning outcomes in mathematics? Decades of basic research on how people learn has implications for the design of curriculum, instruction, and assessment. However, bringing research to practice involves simultaneously applying multiple design principles and raises pragmatic challenges of classroom contexts. Our project used research-based recommendations to systematically revise a widely used middle school mathematics curriculum and investigated whether the revised curriculum improved student learning in mathematics. In this article, we detail a replicable process for operationalizing and implementing multiple research-based principles and report findings from a large-scale experimental evaluation of this approach to estimate the potential impact on student learning.     

Analogical Reasoning in the Classroom: Insights From Cognitive Science

Applying knowledge from one context to another is a notoriously difficult problem, both for children and adults, but lies at the heart of educational endeavors. Analogical reasoning is a cognitive underpinning of the ability to notice and draw similarities across contexts. Reasoning by analogy is especially challenging for students, who must transfer in the context‐rich and often high‐pressure settings of classrooms. In this brief article, we explore how best to facilitate children's analogical reasoning, with the aim of providing practical suggestions for classroom instruction. We first discuss what is known about the development and neurological underpinnings of analogical reasoning, and then review research directly relevant to supporting analogical reasoning in classroom contexts. We conclude with concrete suggestions for educators that may foster their students' spontaneous analogical reasoning and thereby enhance scholastic achievement.     

Effects of different text display types on reading comprehension,sustained attention and cognitive load in mobile reading contexts

Despite the popularity of mobile reading devices, many studies have indicated that small screens restrict information transmission, adversely affecting reading performance on mobile devices. Moreover, mobile reading typically occurs in different reading contexts. Therefore, suitable text display type for mobile reading in different reading contexts should be considered, such that learners can effectively read content. This work selected the frequently used static and dynamic text display types (i.e. Paging and Auto-scrolling) and assessed their effects on mobile reading performance. Furthermore, the features of static and dynamic text display types were considered when designing a mixed text display type for mobile reading. Based on brainwave detector, reading-comprehension test sheet, and cognitive-load scale, this work designed a mobile reading experiment with a two-factor experimental design to assess the effects of the selected static, dynamic, and designed text display types, which were respectively presented in sitting, standing, and walking contexts, on reading comprehension, sustained attention, and cognitive load of learners. Experimental results show that sitting obtained the highest sustained attention and the mixed text garnered lowest sustained attention. Moreover, although analytical results show that no significant difference existed in overall reading comprehension with each text type presented with the mobile reading contexts, reading comprehension (i.e. memory, comprehension, and application types) was significantly affected by the reading context, and to some degree, the text display type. This work also found that the text display type is a major factor affecting learners' cognitive load; however, learners' cognitive load is not be affected by the considered reading contexts. Among the three text display types, the mixed type generates the highest cognitive load, followed by the dynamic type, and then the static type. In conclusion, the three reading contexts with the three text display types have both advantages and disadvantages for reading comprehension, sustained attention, and cognitive load. As a result, text display type for mobile reading on small screens should be adjusted according to reading context or to improve reading comprehension, attention, or cognitive load.     

Understanding teenagers' personal contexts to design technology that supports learning about energy consumption

Energy sustainability is prevalent in political and popular rhetoric and yet energy consumption is rising. Teenagers are an important category of future energy consumers, but little is known of their conceptions about energy and energy saving. We report on empirical research with two groups of teenagers. This is part of ongoing work to design learning technologies that support teenagers learn about personal energy consumption. In this paper we describe our analysis and methodology, which are shaped by the Ecology of Resources (EoR) design framework [Luckin, R. (2010). Re-designing learning contexts: Technology-rich, learner-centred ecologies. London and New York, NY: Routledge]. Our findings informed the development of an EoR model of the participants' personal context, which includes their world resources (people, tools, knowledge, skills, and environment) and their personal resources (conceptions, motivations and concerns around energy consumption). We discuss the range of methods we employed to understand learners' personal contexts. These findings contribute to our understanding of how to explore teenagers' personal contexts and have implications for the design of technology to support learning about personal energy consumption.     

Role of reading engagement in mediating effects of reading comprehension instruction on reading outcomes

The engagement model of reading development suggests that instruction improves students' reading comprehension to the extent that it increases students' engagement processes in reading. We compared how Concept‐Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) (support for cognitive and motivational processes in reading), strategy instruction (support for cognitive strategies in reading), and traditional instruction in fourth‐grade classrooms differentially influenced students' reading comprehension, strategy use, and engagement in reading. Students experiencing CORI were significantly higher than both comparison groups on reading comprehension, reading strategies, and reading engagement. When students' level of reading engagement was statistically controlled, the differences between the treatment groups were not significant. We infer that the level of students' reading engagement during classroom work mediated the instructional effects on reading outcomes. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Using communities of practice as a tool to analyse developing identity in online discussion

In this article, we address the methodological implications of analysing online discussion boards with a focus on participants' changing identities. More specifically, we propose the use of a Communities of Practice framework as a heuristic method for considering how participants' contributions to online discussion play a role in changing who they become, as opposed to what they learn. We argue that many analyses of online communication fail to take account of learning as a change in identity – what/who the learner is (becoming) – and focus mainly on the opportunity for cognitive development – what they know. In doing so, we use a single case study from a discussion board for secondary-aged students of mathematics which acts as a ‘telling case’ before demonstrating what this might say about other contexts for online learning. We argue that this has important implications for both research into, and the design of, online education.     

Effects of Animations in Learning—A Cognitive Fit Perspective1

Information technology (IT) artifacts such as animations are increasingly used in educational institutions. Researchers caution that, if we are to derive benefits from animations and other such IT artifacts, we must understand how to use it optimally. In this study, we look at the effects of animations in supporting learning processes. IT‐enabled animations dynamically depict changes in events and are used in the classroom as external representations to elaborate on the knowledge content transferred in the classroom. Research in related disciplines has investigated the effects of using these animations on student learning outcomes and has reported conflicting results. We propose that the theory of cognitive fit in information systems could reconcile these conflicting findings and offer some insight into how these animations might be used most beneficially. We conduct laboratory‐based experiments to test our ideas. Our findings indicate that these representations are superior to text‐based representations and reduce students' cognitive load only in learning tasks where animations have a good cognitive fit. We discuss the implications of our findings for the use of animations and other external representations in the classroom and for future research on the role of Technology Mediated Learning.     

Becoming a strategic reader

An important aspect of learning to read is understanding how to use strategies to aid comprehension. Many actions such as skimming, using context to discern unfamiliar words, and taking notes to aid remembering can promote reading comprehension and learning. In this paper we examine aspects of knowledge and motivation that are critical to becoming a strategic reader. We emphasize that agents are strategic, not actions removed from contexts, and that self-guided learning depends on the intentions, perceptions, and attributions of learners. Learning to read strategically is related to children's cognitive development as well as to the social contexts of instruction. Some suggestions are offered for classroom instruction that can promote children's awareness and use of strategic reading.     

Longitudinal relations between teaching-related motivations and student-reported teaching quality

Teaching-related motivations are often assumed to influence teaching quality; however, the empirical evidence regarding the directionality of such influences is scarce. The present study thus examined the reciprocal links between teaching-related motivations (self-efficacy and enthusiasm for teaching) and student-reported teaching quality (classroom management, learning support, and cognitive activation). Two-level cross-lagged panel analyses across three time points (with an initial sample of 165 secondary-level mathematics teachers and their 4273 students) revealed no significant cross-lagged effects when teachers' stable inter-individual differences are taken into account. Our findings suggest that teachers' motivations are remarkably stable over time.     

Trust Your Own Observations: Assessment of reader and tutor behaviour in learning to read in English and M # ori

In our previous article, we reported on a research project designed to improve the attending, reading, and writing behaviour of nine older low-achieving children in a special class in an urban primary school. We attempted operational definitions of important reader and tutor behaviours that occur during one-to-one oral reading, and we applied direct observational principles to coding and recording their occurrence from transcribed tapes of children's regular reading with their teacher. This provided data that served to monitor short-term and long-term change in both child and tutor (teacher) behaviour during oral reading interactions. In the present paper, we describe how these direct observational principles have contributed to the development of assessment and tutoring strategies for both adults and peers in the English language Pause Prompt Praise and the M # ori language Tatari Tautoko Tauawhi reading tutoring programs. The assessment strategies generated from observations of reader and tutor interaction around written texts have provided strong support for students learning to read in both English medium and M # ori medium contexts. They have also served as powerful components of successful professional development programs for teachers.     

Picturing ‘our’ heritage in the pedagogic text: layout and illustrations in an Australian and a Swedish history textbook

This paper is about re-representing the lifeworlds experienced by different participants in the 'same' physics classrooms; dissatisfied with the monolithic accounts that dominate the educational literature, we offer here an attempt to w/ri(gh)te classroom research. This paper, therefore, has a dual purpose: We exemplify how authors might want to represent different perspectives on the 'same' classroom and we build on this example to argue for w/ri(gh)ting research by drawing on literary forms that differ from traditional master narratives. W/ri(gh)ting requires reading in new ways; by skipping text, readers risk missing out on the reflexivity of our argument.     

“We do not know what is the real story anymore”: Curricular contextualization principles that support indigenous students in understanding natural selection

We propose a process of contextualization based on seven empirically derived contextualization principles, aiming to provide opportunities for Indigenous Mexican adolescents to learn science in a way that supports them in fulfilling their right to an education aligned with their own culture and values. The contextualization principles we empirically derived account for Nahua students' cultural cognition, socialization, and cultural narratives, thus supporting Indigenous students in navigating the differences between their culture and the culture and language of school while learning complex science concepts such as natural selection. The process of curricular contextualization we propose is empirically driven, taking culture and socialization into account by using multiples sources (cognitive tasks to explore teleology, ethnographic observation of students' community and classroom, and interviews with students and community members) and builds on the scholarship in Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Indigenous Education. We used these principles to redesign a middle school biology unit on natural selection to make it more culturally relevant for Nahua students. The enactment of this unit resulted in students being engaged in science learning and achieving significant learning gains. The significance of this study lies in presenting evidence that learning science in culturally relevant ways supports the learning of challenging biology concepts. We provide evidence that Western science can be learned in ways that are more aligned with Indigenous students' Traditional Indigenous Knowledge, thus informing the implementation of educational policies aiming to improve the quality of secondary education for Indigenous adolescents. Our proposed contextualization principles can benefit students of all cultural identities who feel that their religion, language, or traditional knowledge are not aligned with school science, facilitating their access to culturally relevant science education.     

Students' Agentic Engagement Predicts Longitudinal Increases in Perceived Autonomy-Supportive Teaching: The Squeaky Wheel Gets the Grease

Recognizing that teachers' motivating styles predict students' classroom engagement, we investigated whether students' classroom engagement might predict a change in teachers' motivating styles, though we investigated only students' perceptions of these changes. Using a self-determination theory framework and a classroom-based longitudinal research design, 336 Peruvian university students self-reported their teachers' perceived autonomy-supportive teaching and four aspects of their own engagement (behavioral, emotional, agentic, and cognitive) at the beginning (T1) and end (T2) of a semester. As expected, earlysemester perceived autonomy-supportive teaching predicted longitudinal increases in all four aspects of students' late-semester engagement. More importantly, students' early-semester agentic engagement predicted longitudinal increases in perceived autonomy-supportive teaching, which suggests that students' classroom engagement may recruit greater perceived autonomy support.     

Perception of democracy in computer-mediated communication: participation,responsibility, collaboration,and reflection

We present a case study to analyze how higher education students attending a Spanish University (N = 100) democratize the virtual classroom by assuming responsibility for their learning and that of the other members of the class; participate actively in social, cognitive, and teaching issues; and collaborate by creating a learning community and reflecting individually and as a group. Our mixed methodology includes the following: (1) content analysis with a categorization system adapted from the community of inquiry approach and (2) two questionnaires on students' perception of the democratic elements in the virtual classroom. The results show that the students assume democratic principles of responsibility, critique, participation, and collaboration. We observe the role that the teachers play in facilitating democratization of the classroom through flexible design of instruction, promotion of social relationships, and orientation of the debate toward the learning objectives. This investigation shows the implementation of democratic principles in the virtual classroom.