Effects of Headings on Text Summarization

A summarization task was used to study whether headings influence readers' representations of the topic structure of a text. College students (Experiments 1-3) and sixth- and eighth-graders (Experiment 3) summarized a multiple topic text that (a) included headings introducing every new subtopic, (b) included headings introducing half of the new subtopics, or (c) included no headings. In all experiments, topics were more likely to be included in a summary if they were signaled than if they were not signaled. This effect was magnified when the text was only half signaled: Signaled topics were more likely to appear in a summary if only half the text topics were signaled than if all of the topics were signaled; however, unsignaled topics were less likely to appear in a summary if half of the text topics were signaled than if none of the text topics were signaled. The findings demonstrate that readers rely heavily on headings in a task that emphasizes attention to a text's topic structure. It is suggested that previously observed signaling effects on text recall are mediated by effects on how readers represent a text's topic structure. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.     

Prior knowledge,reading skill,and text cohesion in the comprehension of science texts

This study examined how text features (i.e., cohesion) and individual differences (i.e., reading skill and prior knowledge) contribute to biology text comprehension. College students with low and high levels of biology knowledge read two biology texts, one of which was high in cohesion and the other low in cohesion. The two groups were similar in reading skill. Participants' text comprehension was assessed with open-ended comprehension questions that measure different levels of comprehension (i.e., text-based, local-bridging, global-bridging). Results indicated: (a) reading a high-cohesion text improved text-based comprehension; (b) overall comprehension was positively correlated with participants' prior knowledge, and (c) the degree to which participants benefited from reading a high-cohesion text depended on participants' reading skill, such that skilled participants gained more from high-cohesion text.     

The Representation and Comprehension of Place-on-the-Page and Text-Sequence Memory

Readers' memories for the physical location and sequence of information in a text were measured to further explore how they are represented in memory and their relation to comprehension. Participants read a biography or an expository essay and were tested on their comprehension of the text, memory for the location of information on a page of text (place on the page), and temporal memory for the sequence of information in a text (text sequencing). Results suggest that (a) readers store a substantial amount of text-sequencing information, (b) memory for text-sequencing information is strongly related to comprehension, (c) memory for place on the page is very weak, and (d) memory for place-on-the-page and text-sequencing information appear to be distinct. Our results indicate that text-sequence information is part of the textbase or situation model, whereas place-on-the-page information is a surface-level memory.     

Gender differences in reading: Examining text-based interest in relation to text characteristics and reading comprehension

Reading is a key competence for knowledge acquisition and learning processes. One important source of reading motivation is interest. Even though students' text-based interest often differs by gender, it remains unclear which text factors underlie these differences and whether text-based interest relates to reading comprehension among boys and girls. In a sample of 514 elementary students (47.2% girls), this study examined whether text topic, protagonists' gender, and text difficulty affect boys' and girls' text-based interest and whether interest and reading comprehension are intertwined. Based on a repeated within-subject design using fourteen narrative texts, the results indicated that boys' interest was higher in texts with male-attributed topics, male protagonists, and in more difficult texts. In contrast, girls’ interest was only affected by text difficulty. Text-based interest and reading comprehension were significantly related, albeit stronger for boys than for girls. The findings are discussed regarding future implications for research and educational practice.     

Effects of Argument Scaffolding and Source Credibility on Science Text Comprehension

This study investigated the effects of argument scaffolding and source credibility on science text comprehension. Eighty-seven college students were randomly assigned to an argument scaffolding activity, or no scaffolding, and read 2 science texts, attributed to a high- or a low-credibility source. The argument-scaffolding group recalled less text-based information but generated more knowledge-based inferences than did the no-scaffolding group. High source credibility enhanced readers’ text-based recall but had little effect on knowledge-based inferences or situation models. Overall, results suggest that argumentation facilitates deeper text comprehension and better argument understanding, while at the same time reducing the effect of source credibility on text processing.     

英语阅读教学中语篇信息词的作用

文章作者以教学研究者和反思者的双重身份,以自己的课堂教学为试验基地,通过两年的实践,在英语阅读教学中有意识地强调语篇信息词在英语阅读课文中的作用。研究试验数据、教师的实际教学、问卷调查和随后的访谈都表明有意识地培养学生在英语阅读课文中关注语篇信息词,不仅可以提高学生阅读理解的效率,还可改进教师英语阅读课的教学方法和提高授课技巧。     

Enhancing Memory Access for Less Skilled Readers

Less skilled readers’ comprehension often suffers because they have an impoverished representation of text in long-term memory; this, in turn, increases the difficulty of gaining access to backgrounded information necessary for maintaining coherence. The results of four experiments demonstrated that providing less skilled readers with additional explicit interconnections enhanced their text representations in memory and increased their ability to maintain coherence. Experiments 1a and 1b confirmed the finding that less skilled readers were not disrupted by global inconsistencies. Experiments 2a and 2b showed that text manipulations designed to enhance the accessibility of global information led to less skilled readers being disrupted by global inconsistencies.     

Signals foster multimedia learning by supporting integration of highlighted text and diagram elements

Two experiments investigated how signals foster learning from text and diagrams by examining the relationship between visual attention and learning outcomes. In Experiment 1 (N = 55) students learned about the circulatory heart system from a multimedia lesson either with or without signals highlighting text–diagram correspondences. Results showed that students learning with signals attended to signaled (but not to non-signaled) information more frequently and earlier during learning; these changes in visual attention could explain better performance in answering text–diagram-integration questions. Experiment 2 (N = 78) replicated these findings with respect to early attention on signaled diagram elements and learning outcomes; in addition, a third condition was investigated, where signals highlighted diagram elements that did not match the text. Results showed that mismatched signals guided attention only initially, whereas later on students attended more to information that corresponded to the text. Mismatched signals had no effect on learning outcomes. Taken together, the results suggest that signals aid learning by highlighting specific text–diagram correspondences and not by amplifying diagram processing more generally.     

What makes a matrix so effective? An empirical test of the relative benefits of signaling, extraction, and localization

What type of display helps students learn the most and why? This study investigated how displays differing in terms of signaling, extraction, and localization impact learning. In Experiment 1, 72 students were assigned randomly to one cell of a 4 × 2 design. Students studied a standard text, a text with key ideas extracted, an outline that localized ideas topically, and a matrix that localized ideas topically and categorically. One version of the displays signaled the displays’ organization and one version did not. The matrix display proved best for facilitating fact and relationship learning because of its ability to localize related information within topics and categories. Simply signaling or extracting text ideas was not helpful. Experiment 2 demonstrated that not all matrices are created equal because they can vary in terms of how information is localized. About 54 students were assigned randomly to one cell of a 2 × 2 design that varied localization of matrix topics and categories. Students studied matrices high or low in topical organization and high or low in categorical organization. Results confirmed that a high, natural ordering of matrix topics is necessary to highlight relationships and bolster relationship and fact learning.     

REFUTATION TEXT IN SCIENCE EDUCATION: A REVIEW OF TWO DECADES OF RESEARCH

As people attempt to make sense of the world, they develop personal knowledge structures. These structures often contain misconceptions—inaccurate or incomplete information—that are highly resistant to change because existing knowledge networks must be restructured to accommodate counterintuitive information in a process known as conceptual change. Since textbooks are the dominant resource for science instruction in most classrooms, text-based methods of facilitating conceptual change need to be examined. Since the mid-1980 s, researchers have investigated the conceptual change potential of refutation text, a text structure that includes elements of argumentation and that has been described as one of the most effective text-based means for modifying readers’ misconceptions. In this paper, twenty years of refutation text research in science and reading education is reviewed and then a secondary analysis of those results is conducted to explore developmental aspects of the efficacy of refutation text. Although a developmental relationship was not revealed, two decades of research indicate that reading refutation text rather than traditional expository text is more likely to result in conceptual change.     

中国大众传播媒介法制传播负效果分析

大众传播媒介在法制传播中担当着重要角色 ,但同时也产生了一些负面效果 ,主要是 :法制传播文本出现信息误差 ,从而误导受众 ;侵害民事主体的名誉权 ;色情、暴力内容充斥法制传播文本 ,误导受众 (尤其是青少年 )的价值观 ,引发犯罪 ;媒介监督职能行使不当 ,影响司法的独立与公正。     

The integration of information in a digital,multi-modal learning environment

The aim of the reported eye-tracking study was to investigate whether learners integrate information presented on several pages within a digital learning environment and whether the underlying processes differ between a purely text-based and a multi-modal digital learning environment. Participants (N = 97) learned about the development of tornados. Picture presentation (yes vs. no) and presentation of inconsistent information between pages (yes vs. no) was varied between-subjects. Results showed that inconsistent information led to more intense gaze behavior. This indicates that learners re-activated information presented on previous pages to integrate it with the actual information, enabling them to detect the inconsistencies. Furthermore, the data pattern for text-related gaze behavior was not influenced by picture presentation, indicating that cognitive processes in purely text based or multi-modal learning environments are much the same. Comprehension outcomes did not differ between groups. The implications of these results are discussed.     

Text-signaling devices and their effects on reading and memory processes

Signals are writing devices that emphasize aspects of a text's content or structure without adding to the content of the the text. Findings are reviewed for studies of several different types of signaling devices, including: titles, headings, previews, overviews, summaries, typographical cues, recall sentences, number signals, importance indicators, and summary indicators. Most investigations have examined how the presence of signals in a text affects subsequent memory for the text. Virtually all types of signals produce better memory for information they cue in a text, whereas memory for unsignaled information often is unaffected. Less attention has been directed to signaling effects on other cognitive processes, such as attention, basic reading processes, and comprehension. It is argued that an understanding of how signals influence these processes will contribute to the application of signaling research to reading and writing instruction and to our general understanding of reading.     

The limited facilitative effect of typographical signals

Two experiments investigated the limited facilitative effect of typographical signals. Subjects were presented with a text that had parts of the microstructure (i.e., details within the text) underlined or not underlined. In addition, subjects were informed about a subsequent task that was designed to set up a specific expectation (i.e., receiving questions about the microstructure of the text, or being asked questions about the macrostructure or general nature of the text). After reading, all subjects were asked questions about the text's microstructure. In both experiments, it was found that the mere presence of signals did not lead to better performance on the questions. Instead, there was a facilitative effect only for those subjects who received signals and who received questions about the microstructure. Additionally, Experiment 2 found that in the same text the signaled information was recalled better than the nonsignaled information. These results argue against a general facilitative effect of typographical signals, and indicate that the use of these signals can vary as a function of strategic processing.     

A pedagogical analysis of science textbooks: How can we proceed?

This paper discusses some of the available frameworks for the pedagogical analysis of school science textbooks. First, it distinguishes between (a) studies which focus on elements of textbooks, such as the content, vocabulary, illustrations used, and the teaching methods promoted; and (b) those which consider the principles that organize the content and the form of presentation. In attempting to consider the sorts of principles that may be used in the studies categorised under (b), two crucial issues are discussed. The first issue refers to the relationship between scientific knowledge and school knowledge, which, as the relevant literature suggests, might not be conceived merely as a simplified “casting” of the scientific structure, but rather should be understood as a complex social process. The second issue explicitly addresses the nature of the pedagogic relationship and the place of the pedagogic text within it. Recent views about the nature of knowledge, it is argued, would suggest a reconceptualisation of the teaching activity, and indicate a model according to which the three elements of the teaching situation-the content, the pupil and the teacher—are seen as being (re)constituted in their articulation within and through the text(book). Thus, for example, what is to be a competent pupil in this approach is a function of the text. On the basis of these considerations, three approaches to the analysis of science textbooks are discussed: the socio-cognitive, the sociolinguistic and the socio-epistemic. The relative merits of the third approach are considered, and some examples are used from Greek science textbooks.     

Strategies to reduce the negative effects of spoken explanatory text on integrated tasks

Two experiments involving 125 grade-10 students learning about commerce investigated strategies to overcome the transient information effect caused by explanatory spoken text. The transient information effect occurs when learning is reduced as a result of information disappearing before the learner has time to adequately process it, or link it with new information. Spoken text, unless recorded or repeated in some fashion, is fleeting in nature and can be a major cause of transiency. The three strategies investigated, all theoretically expected to enhance learning, were: (a) replacing lengthy spoken text with written text (Experiments 1 and 2), (b) replacing lengthy continuous text with segmented text (Experiment 1), and (c) adding a diagram to lengthy spoken text (Experiment 2). In both experiments on tasks that required information to be integrated across segments, written text was found to be superior to spoken text. In Experiment 1 the expected advantage of segmented text in reducing transitory effects was not found. Compared with written continuous text the segmented spoken text strategy was inferior. Experiment 2 found that adding a diagram to spoken text was an advantage compared to spoken text alone consistent with a multimedia effect. Overall, the results suggest that spoken text is a cause of the transient information effect, which can be best avoided by substituting written text for spoken text on tasks that require integration of information.     

Role of epistemological understanding and interest in interpreting a controversy and in topic-specific belief change

This study focuses on the influence of high school students’ (10th and 11th grade) epistemological understanding and topic interest on their interpretation of a dual-position expository text about genetically modified food, as well as on the change in their beliefs about the topic. After reading, students were given different tasks: (1) to write a conclusion for the text, which presented two opposing positions but lacked an overall concluding paragraph, (2) to write personal comments on the text, (3) to answer questions on conceptual understanding, and (4) to rate their interest in the text. Participants were also asked to rate their beliefs about transgenic food before and after reading the text. The findings show the effects of students’ level of epistemological understanding when writing conclusions to the text, and commenting on (a) the role of science and scientists’ work with respect to nature, (b) the need for further scientific investigation, and (c) the effective value of transgenic food production. Students’ topic interest affected their answers to the questions on the text arguments and their text-based interest. In addition, after reading, a change emerged in students’ beliefs about the topic in relation to their epistemological understanding.     

Signaling Hierarchical and Sequential Organization in Expository Text

Four experiments tested a hypothesized function of signaling devices, namely, to communicate information about text organization. Experiments 1 and 2 compared headings that communicated the hierarchical organization of text topics with headings that did not communicate the hierarchical organization. Signaling organization led to more complete and accurate outlines of a text. Experiment 3 compared headings that communicated the sequential organization of text topics with headings than did not communicate the organization. Signaling organization led to faster text search. Experiment 4 compared headings that emphasized the sequential organization of topics with headings that emphasized their hierarchical organization. In this comparison, sequential headings led to faster search times than hierarchical headings. Together, the results of the four experiments demonstrate (a) that signals can communicate two distinct types of organizational information, and (b) those two types of organization have distinct implications for text processing.     

Supplementing floundering text with adjunct displays

Three experiments compared the learning potential of text versus outline and matrix displays. In Experiments 1 and 2, college students read or heard a passage about fish and then studied the text, an outline, or a matrix. In Experiment 3, students heard a passage about wildcats, and then studied text, outline, or matrix displays. In all experiments, the text, outline, and matrix formats were informationally equivalent. However, the two-dimensional matrix appeared more computationally efficient than the linear organized text or outline because it (a) positioned related information about fish or wildcats in closer proximity so that local relations within a single category (such as size) were learned, and (b) organized information spatially so that global relations across categories (such as size and diet) were learned. The learning potential of text, outline, and matrix displays was also examined in combination with variations in thematic organization, amount of study time, and time of testing. The most important and consistent findings were that (a) outline and matrix displays produced greater relational learning than the text, and (b) matrix displays produced greater relational learning than outlines.     

Reading Together: Capitalising on inter-disciplinary work in the development and refinement of reading tests

The present article provides further evidence of the growing involvement of educational psychologists in inter-disciplinary work. Drawing on the experience of an ongoing national reading test development project, the article describes how educational psychologists and linguists have successfully managed to combine professional knowledge and expertise to create and refine a group reading test. It reports on the innovative approach to reading test development that has emerged from this inter-disciplinary work. That is, how electronically stored language corpora (bodies of electronically stored text) and the employment of corpus analysis software can help to secure the content validity of reading tests. The article concludes by emphasising the growing accessibility of new software tools and suggests that there is increasing scope for inter-disciplinary involvement in the area of reading. It also comments on the potential of this approach in the understanding and assessment of dyslexia.