Middle-class writing in late medieval London

This paper seeks to ascertain the attitudes to, and work on, English school boards of clergymen from the three main Churches which had taken an active interest in education in England in the nineteenth century – the Church of England, the Roman Catholic Church and the Wesleyan Methodist Church. Were the clergy ‘the enemy within’, attempting to subvert the cause of non‐denominational education? Little has previously been written about this work. The research has used a variety of primary sources, among them annual HMI reports on the educational provision in their areas and the pronouncements made by the leaders of the three Churches about their own representations on the boards. A variety of qualitative data has been accessed on the clergy influence in certain areas in the North of England using extant school board managers’ minutes. The picture that emerges from the evidence studied is of a significant and growing influence for Anglican clergy in rural areas. They undoubtedly had self‐interests in their membership, to ensure religious teaching in schools, to protect their own institutions and in part to assert their own status within society. In large towns and cities, boards proved to be independent of clergy control, with much authority given over to the headteachers. Roman Catholic priests often became board members and in doing so were in a position to defend their own schools. Throughout, the one group that did not share the influence on boards was the Wesleyan ministers, who were constrained by their own itinerant ministry. It is hoped that this will encourage further studies of individual communities, where School Board Managers’ Minutes survive, to add further qualitative evidence and further analysis of the direct influence of the clergymen of the three Churches discussed.     

Catholic women educators’ discourse and educational measurement in the early twentieth century in the United States

ABSTRACT

In the early twentieth century in the United States, Roman Catholic schools grew in number and became increasingly regulated by state departments of education. This led to the increased influence of public school reform movements in Catholic schools. Some Catholic educators questioned these movements, while others embraced them. Educational measurement strategies, such as IQ and standardised testing, gained support from women religious orders and congregations, who made up the majority of the Catholic teaching force. For pragmatic reasons, they saw some value in the promises of modern educational science for teaching and learning. This practice, however, put them at odds with some of the beliefs and values of their Church. This study demonstrates how Catholic sister teachers attempted to shape the debate on the introduction and use of reform strategies like IQ and standardised testing. It also examines how Catholic sister teachers made use of Catholic beliefs and values to make arguments in favour of IQ and standardised testing in Catholic schools. Using agreed upon Catholic religious tenets and working within their gendered reality, Catholic sister teachers demonstrated how they tried to convince their colleagues, male and female, to come to an understanding around the use of educational measurement.     

Education and the social order: re‐visioning the legacy of Brian Simon

The movement for the higher education of women in Ireland in the nineteenth century has traditionally been viewed as a Protestant initiative. Scholarship suggests that the Irish campaign developed along the same lines as the English movement, gaining from and growing out of the English advances. Leading Protestant schools for girls have been viewed as the driving force behind the concessions afforded Irish women. This paper challenges this assumption, suggesting that contemporaneous developments in Ireland were driven not by neighbouring reforms but by denominational tensions. The role played by the Catholic teaching orders during the nineteenth century cannot be overlooked. Although initially conservative in their approach to educational provision for girls, the Catholic teaching orders – the Dominican, Loreto and Ursuline orders in particular – were key players and stakeholders in women’s higher education in the latter half of the nineteenth century. This paper explores the objectives of the pioneers of Protestant and Catholic female education, examining the relative influence of the Church of Ireland and the Catholic Church. It explores the possibility that the movement for the higher education of Irish women found its impetus not in gender equality, but in denominational rivalry.     

Religious activism in a secular world: the rise and fall of the teaching congregations of the Catholic Church

In Europe, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries are characterised not only by processes of secularisation, but also by religious reactions to the perceived secularisation of society. In the Catholic Church, the rise of active congregations constitutes a prominent part of this reaction. With their work “in the world”, the members of the active congregations (brothers and sisters) had to represent and disseminate religious values in a modernising and secularising world. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, many of them became active in the field of education. Until well into the twentieth century, teaching sisters and teaching brothers were a customary feature in the system of Catholic education. This article provides a theory-driven historical–sociological and historical–educational analysis of this form of religious activism in the field of education. Overall, its focus is on mechanisms of social differentiation and inclusion in modern society at large, and on the opportunities and problems they create for fields such as religion and education. Empirically, the focus is on the rise and fall of the congregations of teaching brothers and teaching sisters in the Low Countries, especially Belgium.     

Creating the continuum: J.E. Wallace Wallin and the role of clinical psychology in the emergence of public school special education in America

This paper reviews the history of the continuum of services in intellectual disability programmes. The emergence of public school special education in the USA in the first two decades of the twentieth century is used as a case study of this history by focusing on events and personalities connected to the St Louis Public Schools. Using Annual Reports from the era along with the abundant publications and personal papers of J.E. Wallace Wallin, the author explores how the growing class of specialists in clinical psychology and psychometrics gained a foothold in the schools as educational gatekeepers for student placements along an increasingly elaborate ‘continuum of care’. The paper interprets this quest for professional legitimacy as a three-sided conversation with Wallin (and his colleagues) in the middle between the medical officers of institutions for the feeble-minded on the one hand, and the educators of urban school systems on the other. Implications for the current discussions of inclusive approaches to education are discussed.     

What makes a school Catholic?

This research aims to look at how a group of primary head teachers’ in the North West of England perceive the Catholic nature of their schools and how they give their account of Catholic education for twenty-first century Britain. They go on to describe their feelings about the mission of their school. The head teachers’ views of how they identified their school’s Catholicism are critiqued in the light of Catholic Church teaching on the nature of Catholic schools and compared to academic and theological models of Catholic education.     

Natura et urbis in the socio-educational renovation of Barcelona City Council (1909–1933)

ABSTRACT

During the first third of the twentieth century, Barcelona turned into a metropolis with emerging industry. To confront the growing social problems, Barcelona City Council undertook a renovating educational programme focused on hygienic and natural principles as well as on new active teaching methodologies and progressive education. Thus, a completely parallel network of institutions was created alongside the public schools – school camps, day trips to the beach, open air schools, etc. – that aimed at improving the living situation of children, most specifically via the promotion of direct contact with nature. At that time, Barcelona City Council disseminated information widely regarding all these initiatives with the publication, between 1909 and 1933, of around 70 illustrated brochures. The main aim of this article is, using these publications, to present the discourses that were disseminated and built up around the idea of nature and to understand how this relates to the urban environment.     

近代吉林基督教传播与发展述论

基督教在近代吉林传播始于19世纪中叶以后,20世纪初发展较快。期间,教会为了传播基督教,采取了创办医院、开办学校等办法辅助布道。基督教在近代吉林的传播,对当地社会产生了一定的影响。     

现代智利小说的崛起

智利小说在现代尤其是二十世纪涌现出很多在拉美和欧洲享有较高声誉的卓越的作家作品,然而因为智利诗歌比小说更为悠久的历史和两位诗人曾先后获得诺贝尔文学奖,智利小说总是掩映在诗歌的光辉之下。揭开智利文学的面纱,将智利小说作为研究对象,以小说作家为纲,对其所属流派、写作手法、主要作品和中国对其研究情况进行综述,通过梳理智利十九世纪和二十世纪的作家作品及中国对这些作品的译介和研究,旨在充实我国的国别文学研究,将千里之外的智利小说系统地介绍给中国的读者和学者。     

Emigration and education. Galician emigration to America and its impact on the processes of literacy,schooling and civic education amongst the rural and seafaring popular classes

Over the course of the final 30 years of the nineteenth century, and well into the early decades of the twentieth century, hundreds of thousands of Galician people migrated to different areas of America. There they found a new world to contend and interact with – a world that was more advanced and developed socially and culturally. From the perspective of a new awareness and heightened by processes of collective organisation, mainly identity-based, many of them set out to help advance the cultural and social development of Galicia through self-organised political, social and educational processes. In this way, during the 1920s, a growing number of primary schools – roughly 300 – all over Galicia felt the influence of the Galician emigrants. This is a genuine phenomenon characteristic of Galician emigration that has not been observed in the collective actions carried out by any of the other European migrant communities.     

Agricultural societies in colonial Western Australia 1831-70

Religious organisations have long relied on education to transmit cherished values, working within society to preserve their worldview. Therefore, when a religious education system is restructured, it can act as a barometer of change, revealing societal values and reflecting negotiated roles. Like other faiths, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Latter-day Saint or Mormon) has used education to shape its society. In its early history, the faith adopted an isolationist paradigm. Threatened by a Protestant-led common school crusade, Church leaders established a private school system, attempting to augment or even compete with public schools. However, during the early decades of the twentieth century, the programme was folded into the very public school system it was designed to replace. Teachers trained in the faith’s worldview replaced students nurtured in a Church-controlled environment. Accommodation and cooperation supplanted isolation and separation as Mormonism learned to live in two worlds – one with a particularistic religious view and another characterised by a pluralistic society.     

The recruitment of religious as teachers: a case study from 1960s Australia

Historical expositions on the teaching religious in Catholic schools can be seen as constituting models aimed at promoting reflection on the possibility that teaching can be influenced by discourses of ‘vocation’ and ‘the giving of service’, every bit as much as it can be by ‘industrial’ and ‘labour’ perspectives. This paper is offered as one contribution to opening up debate on the matter. It provides an overview of the work of the teaching religious in the English‐speaking world from the middle of the 1850s to the latter half of the twentieth century. Particular practices adopted by the Church aimed at recruiting young males and females to join the ranks of the teaching religious are then outlined. Finally, a film entitled Profession in Christ, which was produced by the (Irish) Christian Brothers Order in Australia in the early 1960s for use by their special ‘recruiting agents’ as they traveled around Catholic schools ‘questing’ for recruits, is analysed.     

Policy Perceptions of Headteachers and Governors in Catholic Schooling

The initial focus of this research centred on a study of the extent to which government legislation and action since 1965 has threatened or eroded the Catholic Church's influence over its schools within the maintained sector [1]. However, it became clear that this focus was based on the assumption that the Catholic Church in England and Wales had a clear set of educational principles which were not only distinct from those of the state but involved different policy outcomes. Moreover, during the course of the study, evidence emerged which indicated that the Church had not given as much attention to the principles underlying its educational policy as it had to the maintenance and numerical expansion of the schools themselves. It was also realised that the nature of Catholic education cannot be determined solely by examining the Church's official documents. Whilst official Church pronouncements indicate what Catholic education ought to be, they may not correspond to a reality of what a particular Catholic community has made of Catholic education. Therefore, this paper examines some of the beliefs and attitudes of a sample of Catholics involved in Catholic schooling.     

基督教会在沂蒙兴办近代教育的历史分析

基督教会传教士为了传播基督教，在沂蒙创办了大量的教会学校。这些学校遍布沂州府所属各县，采用西方近代教育体制，招收教徒和非教徒子女授学，宗教是必修重点学科，此外开数，理化，外语，体育，实验等课程。初办时，少收或不收任何费用，后收费越来越多。教会粉学属于文化侵略的范畴，一些沂蒙人因到教会学校就读而信仰了基督教，很多教会学校的毕业生成了洋奴和帝国主义侵华的帮凶。但教会学校也扩大了西学在沂蒙的传播和西学对沂蒙的影响，培养了一批新式人才，客观上促进了沂蒙近代教育的发展。     

Examining the Legacy of Urban Catholic Schooling in the U.S.: A Systematic Literature Review

The Urban Review - Research conducted in the twentieth century found urban Catholic schools in the U.S. had a legacy of providing high quality educational opportunities for low-income students and...     

The urban and the natural in education reform: the development of Hamburg Schullandheime (rural school hostels) in the 1920s

ABSTRACT

The desire to be close to nature and live in tune with it grew as industrialisation, urbanisation and the impact of technology became increasingly ubiquitous at the turn of the twentieth century. Throughout Europe, model schools were established in rural environments. These private reform schools could not solve the problems of public urban schools. Founded on the initiative of teachers and parents, the Schullandheim (rural school hostel) emerged as a new form bringing urban education and schooling close to nature after the First World War in Germany. Even if related pedagogic activities developed at that time in other countries there is no evidence for comparable institutions. Besides tracing the development of Schullandheime, the article shows how the school hostel idea was embedded in the contemporary educational discussion about the influence large cities had on youth and explores the educational and cultural differences within the school hostel movement through the use of visual material.     

Classroom wall charts and Biblical history: a study of educational technology in elementary schools in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Sweden

This article considers the emergence of classroom wall charts as a teaching technology in Swedish elementary schools in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, using Biblical history teaching as an example. There has been some work done internationally on wall charts as an instructional technology, but few studies have looked at their use in Sweden. With a theoretical approach informed by Martin Lawn’s understanding of teaching technologies, this article shows that wall charts became both an important teaching object and a means of introducing new pedagogical ideas. A study of the official school inspectors’ reports shows that wall charts had spread to most local schools by the end of the nineteenth century, while an analysis of Biblical history textbooks and teaching guidelines shows that visual aids were increasingly integrated into the school curriculum. The wall charts themselves were initially imported, mainly from Germany, but by the end of the nineteenth century they were being produced in Sweden for the domestic market, in keeping with the National Romantic ideals of the day as well as with the new awareness of the importance of adapting images to use in classroom teaching.     

Overcoming mistrusted masculinity: contesting ethnic minority fathers’ involvement in home–school cooperation in Denmark

This ethnographic study investigates cooperation between homes and schools in a Danish context from the perspective of ‘ethnic minority fathers’. I analyse how experiences of an ‘implicit’ mistrust can make ethnic minority fathers reluctant to cooperate with child institutions such as schools. It is argued that this mistrust is related to a hegemonic negative image of these fathers as oppressive, aggressive, and/or absent and careless. To conceptualize this mistrust, I argue for the concept of ‘mistrusted masculinity’. The analysis directs attention to the rhythms of the fathers’ everyday lives, offering examples of how the absence of some ethnic minority fathers in home–school cooperation may be explained by long working hours and ‘constraining jobs’. The research found that a ‘new role of the father’ is evident in the behaviours and attitudes of both ‘native Danish fathers’ and ethnic minority fathers.     

The scientific heritage of Portuguese secondary schools: a historical approach

Portuguese schools hold important collections, most organised in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This scientific heritage, however, is still to be discovered. This article focuses on the creation, development, and role of natural history collections in Portuguese secondary schools, between the second half of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century, that is, before and after the introduction of laboratory-based teaching in science education. Material culture is thus used to expand the current narrative of science teaching in Portugal, by tracking these kinds of collections. Contrary to the current view on science teaching in Portuguese secondary education, in this article I argue that by focusing on collections, and more generally on the material culture of secondary schools, a new picture emerges that contradicts the traditional discourse emphasising the scarcity of appropriate school buildings, infrastructure, and equipment. A brief overview of the current state of Portuguese natural history teaching collections is also provided, drawing attention to their vulnerability, given the absence of a general policy or guidelines orienting its conservation.     

MARGINALIZATION AND RENEWAL: EVANGELICAL CHRISTIAN EDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Abstract This article addresses three periods of evangelical Christian education development in the twentieth century. The early part of the century was a time of loss of influence and marginalization within the broader religious education movement. The middle part of the century saw an explosion of parachurch educational ministry efforts to assist the evangelical movement and renewed efforts to develop professional organizations and curricular resources for the church. The last part of the century has seen a growth of influence of evangelical educational writers, publishers, schools, and megachurches on the shape of Christian education today. Current assessment, hopes for the future, and gifts to the broader religious education community are reviewed.