The Dalton Plan: recycling in the guise of innovation

Dalton education is the largest educational reform movement in the Netherlands. Around eighty years ago it spread throughout the world; Dalton education was found in the USA, England, Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, India, China and Japan. Today there is a revival of interest in England and Germany. We examine the origins of Dalton education by comparing the work of its founder Helen Parkhurst (1886–1973) with developments in American education towards the end of the nineteenth century. From 1870 onwards, in numerous American cities, there were experiments with alternatives for lockstep teaching, including experiments with individualised instruction, individual assignments, differentiation, self-direction, self-pacing, freedom, tutor learning and co-operation. In part, these innovations stemmed from methods that were already customary prior to the dissemination of lockstep teaching – methods which, at the onset of the twentieth century, were actually still common in rural one-room schools. The Dalton Plan proves to be not very original. Parkhurst recycled various ideas and methods which had already been developed and tried out in the preceding decades. Her pretension of having introduced something new and authentic is implausible. That raises two questions: how to explain the discrepancy between the image Parkhurst presents of her own work and the image derived from historical comparison, and how to explain the popularity of the Dalton Plan in the 1920s, given that it was not unique or particularly innovative.     

Computer-aided graphing: a comparative study

Abstract

Good practice with information and communication technologies (ICT) in teacher education is responsive to its society's needs. This article provides a complementary view to those from Europe and elsewhere in the world from the perspective of federal USA, with this nation's localised support for K-12 schools. It is part of the quick-scan study in 2002 led by Paul Kirschner of the Open University of the Netherlands. Five teacher education programmes were selected to illustrate best practice with technology (as ICT is called in the USA) in US teacher education. Although the ICT benchmarks described by Kirschner & Davis (this issue) were present in every case, a better distinguishing factor was that all had a mission to serve their diverse communities. In addition, these programmes provide complementary professional development in the schools in which pre-service students gain internships. The review of best practice comes after 3 years of significant federal funding provided through the Federal Department of Education's initiative: ‘Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to use Technology’ (PT3∥. Strategic planning for this initiative by government agencies and professional organisations is also described. It is noted that there is still much work to be done towards social justice and digital equity within and beyond the USA.     

The power of networks in the marketing of pedagogical ideals: the Dalton Plan in Great Britain (1920–1925)

ABSTRACT

The Dalton Plan is well known in educational historiography. But there are also unanswered questions such as: how is it possible that a pedagogical experiment begun in the United States in February 1920 had, by the month of March, already come to be known first hand by a visiting English educator? The objective in this article is to find an explanation for the rapid expansion and huge popularity of the Dalton Plan in Great Britain in the early 1920s. This is attempted theoretically by using the concepts ‘educational network’ and ‘pedagogical product’, and empirically by using unexplored documents and correspondence concerning Helen Parkhurst’s trips to Great Britain. It ends with the conclusion that, in Great Britain, as early as 1922, the Dalton Plan became a commercial product that was exploited in similar ways to the work of Maria Montessori.     

民国时期“书院”概念重塑的历史考察

从二十世纪二十年代开始,书院成为中国现代文化教育机构改革特别是现代学校改革的重要制度和思想资源,书院史研究也随之兴起。这股“书院热”的社会背景是西式学校制度弊病的凸显及其引起的批判和反思,思想背景在于道尔顿制、导师制等西方教育理论的传入,这两方面共同形塑了新的书院概念;同时展开的书院史研究受到这些因素的影响,通过各种方式暂时弥合了新书院概念与书院历史实践之间的割裂,并为新书院概念贡献了历史依据。这一重塑的书院概念成为中国教育史及教育理论中的重要典范,影响一直延续至今。     

From Holland to Hamburg: the experimental and community schools of Hamburg seen through the eyes of Dutch observers (1919–1933)

In the period 1919–1933 the experimental and community schools in Hamburg tried to put into practice a new model of schooling without a set curriculum that was based on providing a considerable amount of freedom for pupils and teachers. These experiences were introduced in the Netherlands by way of magazines published by the New Education Fellowship (NEF) or Dutch journals edited by educationalists and university professors. The Hamburg schools were also visited by Christian Anarchist teachers who were connected with new schools in the Netherlands and who already had experimented with new ways of life in small communities. In this article we describe their experiences in Hamburg. Their observation reports would not trigger a growing interest in a social community type of schooling; in general Dutch teachers, even the socialist ones, did not change their preference for the traditional classroom system of education. More individualistic methods from Montessori and Parkhurst (Dalton Plan), supported by university professors and inspectors of education, were considered to have more potential for changing the classroom system from within.     

中国近代幼儿师范教育的历史嬗变

清末,教会女学开启了中国近代幼儿师范教育之门,随后国人自办女学也开始了中国幼儿师范教育的早期自我探索,而分别于1904年和1907年颁布的《奏定学堂章程》与《女子师范学堂章程》则标志着中国制度化幼儿师范教育的确立。20世纪20年代末至40年代,中国近代幼儿师范教育迎来了其发展历史上的第一个高潮,呈现出了独立化、科学化、民族化等基本特点。     

Migrant schools in the Thailand-Burma borderland: from the informal to the formal

This article examines migrant schools in the Thailand-Burma borderland. Substantial existence of migrant schools enables migrant children to have their own education even in the absence of proper legal status. The growth of migrant schools marked the building up of a migrant education institution in cooperation with international partners, showing progress in the constitution of migrant lives. Since the mid-2000s, the Thai government has engaged in migrant schools in an attempt to regularize them as learning centres under its guidance. This article argues that it should not necessarily be interpreted as a victory of the state over the migrants and migrant schools. Rather, it shows the impressive growth of the migrant education institution, bringing the state into play and has achieved recognition from the state as a legitimate formal institution.     

其兴也勃,其亡也忽——道尔顿制在中国的兴衰及其启示

道尔顿制曾于20世纪20年代在中国风行一时,其在中国的兴衰可以用"其兴也勃,其亡也忽"来形容。文章通过考察道尔顿制在中国的历程,提出道尔顿制在中国兴衰的四点启示:教育改革既要适应潮流更应观照国情,应重视教育实验在教育理论或模式推广中的作用,进行教育改革的时候一定要重视教师素质的提升,在推进教育现代化的过程中应重视中国传统教育的价值。     

From savages to capitalists: progressive images of education in the UK and the USA (1920–1939)

ABSTRACT

One strand of historical research in education that sails on the waves of the visual turn in history concerns the progressive image of education. A major reference point is an article written in 2007 by Burke and Grosvenor, who, on the basis of the photographic archives of two progressive schools in England, constructed a visual typology of progressive education. After a content analysis of 944 images published in the educational journal The New Era and 1827 images in Progressive Education in the period 1920–1939, it is concluded that this typology is partly adequate for describing a common image of new education in the UK and progressive education in the USA. But it should be extended with two more elements: (a) urban discovery and nature exploration, and (b) cultural-historical representations and recapitulation. In the latter children are first portrayed as ‘primitive savages’ who later become little bankers and shopkeepers in a capitalist economy.     

Federalization of education in Chihuahua

This article examines the politics behind the initial centralization of primary education in Chihuahua, Mexico during the 1920s and 1930s. The article argues that the centralization of primary education was one of many tools used by the federal government to consolidate its power in the wake of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1917) and create a corporatist state. Even before the Revolution, federal officials were concerned that neither states nor municipalities were capable of providing primary education (especially in rural areas) adequate to Mexico’s needs. Even though the 1917 Constitution gave control over primary education to the municipal government, Education Ministry (SEP) officials began taking major steps in centralizing primary education under the auspices of the federal government during the administration of Alvaro Obregón (1920–1924) by subsidizing state‐run primary schools and refusing to deal with municipal governments. Under Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–1928) the SEP undermined state‐run education by annulling all existing contracts with state governments and creating a parallel federal primary schools system. The federal government also tried to gain control over federal teachers by centralizing control over grassroots unions. The SEP’s drive to centralize control over schooling reached its climax during this period with the federalization of all primary schools in Chihuahua and Queretaro in 1935.     

IDENTITY AND SCHOOL HISTORY: THE PERSPECTIVE OF YOUNG PEOPLE FROM THE NETHERLANDS AND ENGLAND

ABSTRACT:  The article presents the findings from a survey of over 400 young people in metropolitan areas in the Netherlands and England concerning their views on identity and school history. The research explored pupils' ideas about which facets of history were of interest to them, what history they believed should be taught in schools, and their views on the purposes of school history and history in general. The coding of the data made it possible to delineate between those from different ethnic minority backgrounds, boys and girls, age and level of education and first or second generation of migration. The study revealed significant differences between young people's ideas about history and identity, and those advanced by politicians and policy makers in the Netherlands, England and elsewhere. The concluding section of the paper considers the implications of the findings for policy makers in the field of history education in schools.     

Critical Perspectives on Colonisation of the Art Curriculum in Korea

This article examines some characteristics of art education in Korea. It takes the form of a historical overview using a postcolonial lens. The findings were that the predominant Western aesthetic concepts and theories as central culture embodied in Korean art education as local culture are: (i) ideas of art as self‐expression developed in Europe and the USA between the 1920s and 1950s; (ii) the concept of art in daily living in the USA in the 1930s; (iii) design elements and principles by Arthur Wesley Dow in the USA in the 1920s; (iv) Bauhaus design theory in Europe in the 1920s; and (v) the appreciation of nature beauty by John Ruskin in the late nineteenth century in England. These educational ideas have been influential on policy‐making in Korean art education, and therefore new concepts are integrated with these elements for curriculum changes. In this way, the characteristic of the colonised Korean art curriculum is so hybrid that it is difficult to understand the concepts and the practical implications of the various policies for art teaching. Consequently, it has not served the issues of cultural diversity and pluralism that are so problematic in twenty‐first century Korean society.     

从经济学角度重新审视美国教育的公共目的

教育是公共产品还是私人产品近年来受到广泛的讨论,本文从经济学的角度回顾了美国教育的目的。中小学教育的公共性主要体现在公民教育;高等教育的公共性主要体现在知识创造和文化传承;职业教育的公共性主要体现在培养合格的劳动者。教育应该重新强调其公共性。     

理想与现实之间:燕京大学教育学科初期创办史论

高厚德教授设想在燕京大学建立一所师资雄厚、设施优良、堪称模范的教育学院,以培养各级教师和教育管理者,并附设各级实验学校,开展教育科学研究。终因校长和董事会存有异见,经费和师资缺乏等,这一宏大的理想在现实中暂时受挫。但是,燕京大学教育学科坚定理想,不断拓展学科发展计划,使之符合大学发展和社会需要,努力争取校方和国外的支持,并增聘教师。20世纪20—30年代,教育系建立了学校教育、学前教育学、乡村教育学等学科体系,包含专科、本科教育和研究生教育的多种层次、多种类型的人才培养目标,建立了幼儿园、小学、中学等完整的附属实验学校体系,基本实现了最初的学科发展理想。燕京大学教育学科初期艰辛的创办史为教育学科的建设提供了宝贵的历史经验。     

20世纪20年代末中国初中混合数学教科书考察

受欧美,尤其是美国数学教育倡导融合主义主张的影响,20 世纪20年代我国编写的初中混合数学教科书数形结合,各科知识前后衔接关联自然.但由于编写过程中打乱了学科知识本身的系统性,对数学的"整体性"考虑不够,勉强把几种知识混合为一体,学生难以学到系统的知识,再加之师资水平有限,编写队伍不够成熟,以及当时毕业会考的影响等原因,混合数学教科书以失败而告终,但这次实验对当时及后来我国中学数学教学产生了深远的影响.     

Teachers' views on citizenship education in secondary education in The Netherlands

In 2005 the Dutch Minister of Education proposed making it compulsory for all schools in The Netherlands to stimulate active citizenship and social integration. Teachers must give these educational goals a tangible form in their practice. What are the teachers' views on citizenship education? Concepts of citizenship education and the teacher's role in it may differ widely, and very different perspectives on values and value development are possible. This article addresses how teachers view citizenship education. We present the results of a survey conducted among a representative sample of Dutch secondary schools. The results show that teachers make clear choices in the importance they attach to certain values. Teachers want students to acquire skills to analyse, communicate and reflect on values, and they want to stimulate the development of certain values. The chosen values relate to different types of citizenship. School level, school subject and the age of the teachers make a difference to the importance teachers attach to different values.     

Building strong parent–teacher relationships in primary education: the challenge of two-way communication

This study investigates which subjects teachers talk about with parents in parent–teacher conferences and other contact moments, and how they communicate with regard to these subjects. Fifty-five in-depth interviews were carried out with teachers from special education schools, at-risk schools serving low socio-economic status children and mainstream primary education schools in the southern part of the Netherlands. The results illustrate that (1) two-way communication is used the most in at-risk schools, (2) teachers find it difficult to involve parents in the decision-making process concerning special care for the child, and (3) the teachers’ attitude towards parents is best when it comes to difficult discussion topics. When situations are really difficult, teachers stand alongside the parents instead of addressing them from their expert role, asking them ‘How can we solve this together?’. Teachers should be more aware of this quality, and not be afraid to address difficult subjects or conflicts.     

Exploration of teaching strategies that stimulate the growth of academic skills of children with ASD in special education school

The cognitive growth of children with developmental disorders, like autism, can be seriously impaired due to the disorder. If so, in the Netherlands, these children can attend special schools where they are treated to ameliorate disorder symptoms and to stimulate cognitive growth. The aim of this paper was to identify teaching strategies that stimulate the growth of academic skills in children diagnosed with autism, attending a special needs education school in the Netherlands. Findings showed that the strongest underlying teaching strategy that predicted the academic growth of the children on the autism spectrum in the short and long term was the provision of structure in place, time and activities. It was further found that long-term academic gains were partly predicted by the emotional support from their teachers. The implications of the findings are discussed.     

Dutch children and their ‘God’: the development of the ‘God’ concept among indigenous and immigrant children in the Netherlands

In the 1980s and 1990s in the Netherlands, as a reaction to the growing number of non‐Christian pupils at Christian schools, religious education and religious development became issues for debate. At some schools, it was the exclusiveness of the Christian tradition that dominated, and at others it was the inclusiveness. Another group specialised in inter‐religious dialogue. Our research studied the religious development of pupils from two primary schools. One is the first and only inter‐religious primary school in the Netherlands, the Juliana van Stolberg primary school. The other is a Christian school, the Prinses Margriet primary school that educates pupils exclusively in the Christian tradition. The research questions focussed on the development of the ‘God’ concept of children confronted with stories from different religious traditions. The ‘God’ concept is seen in our research as a concept that develops in an inductive way from the data. This way of conceptualising ‘development’ is coined as the prospective perspective on development. The results of this comparative research led to the tentative conclusion that pupils in our research population who were involved in inter‐religious learning, demonstrate explorative behaviour concerning their own religion and that of others. Their ‘God’ concept shows hybrid characteristics. These pupils are rooted in their own tradition, and at the same time they are ‘on the move’. This offers points of departure for the development of citizens articulating their commitments and turning imminent conflicts into inter‐religious encounters.     

封闭或开放——记20世纪20、30年代对教师培养模式的争论

本文从20世纪20、30年代对师范教育独立与否的争论入手,探讨了影响当时师范学校发展、师范教育体制形成的思想因素。提出了对师范教育专业价值认可与否是争论的关键所在。但师范教育的专业价值确立是今天仍然需要努力的方向。