The Third-Person Effect: A Meta-Analysis of the Perceptual Hypothesis

In this study, we report the results of a meta-analysis concerning the third-person effect's perceptual hypothesis. The hypothesis predicts that people judge the media to exert greater persuasive influence on other people than on themselves. Thirty-two published and unpublished studies with 121 separate effect sizes were examined. The overall effect size between estimated media effects on self and on others was r = .50. Among the 8 moderators investigated (source, method, sampling, respondent, country, desirability, medium, and message), 3 (sampling, respondent, and message) yielded significant effect size variations. Third-person perception in nonrandom and college student samples was significantly larger than in random and noncollege student samples. From a theoretical perspective, these findings may have been due to student participants perceiving themselves to be smarter than other people. A more disturbing explanation would attribute these findings to researchers relying on student samples.     

The First-Person Effect and Its Behavioral Consequences: A New Trend in the Twenty-Five Year History of Third-Person Effect Research

The perceived effect of the media on the self when compared to others has been adequately established over the last 25 five years. Rather than a third-person effect where individuals perceive a greater effect for self than others, first-person effect perceptions, where individuals perceive a greater effect for self than others, have been considered by scholars recently. Findings indicate support for first-person perceptions. However, research is limited and the behavioral consequences of first-person perceptions are almost nonexistent. The current analysis discusses the evolution of the first-person perception and details the findings of each study as well as the psychological mechanisms used to explain first-person perceptions. Methodological considerations for future studies of first-person effect behavioral consequences are also proposed.     

青少年对广告负面影响的第三人效果研究

第三人效果是一种受众认为媒体对其他人的影响大于对他们自己影响的现象。本研究旨在探索不同年龄阶段的受访者对广告负面影响是否存在第三人效果认知,并探索年龄和社会距离与第三人效果认知之间的关系。对447名学生调查发现:初中、高中和大学各年龄阶段的受访者都存在显著的第三人效果认知;受访者认为小生学最容易受到广告的影响,其次为同龄其他人,最小为中老年人;第三人效果认知并没有随着受访者的年龄增大而增强。本研究结果意味着年龄可能并非是受访者判断自己与他人差距的标准,而可能是专业知识或社会经验。     

How Perceived Persuasive Intent and Reactance Contribute to Third-Person Perceptions: Evidence from Two Experiments

In two experiments, this study presents a process model that explains third-person perceptions (TPP) as a function of perceived persuasive intent and reactance. Using two nonstudent samples, findings were internally replicated for two topics. The study shows that media messages evoking perceptions of persuasive intent also activate reactance, which in turn predicts TPP topic-independently. Remarkably, half of the total stimulus effect on TPP could be explained through reactance, which offers new implications for existing theoretical explanations of strong TPP after undesirable messages but weak effects after, for example, prosocial messages.     

Reducing the Bias: How Perspective Taking Affects First- and Third-Person Perceptions of Media Influence

Third- and first-person perceptions (TPPs/FPPs) are considered to be biased judgments of media influence on self and others. Research suggests that perspective taking, i.e., thinking from another person’s position, decreases perceptual gaps between self and others via assimilation. In a two-factorial experiment (n = 431), we test whether this effect of perspective taking (Factor 1) holds true for the presumed influence of desirable and undesirable messages (Factor 2). Results indicate that perspective taking significantly reduces TPPs in the case of an undesirable message but not FPPs that are provoked by the desirable message. The observable effect traces back to a change in presumed message influence on the self. Presumed influence on others was independent of both factors, desirability of message influence and perspective taking. These findings are discussed in the light of cognitive and motivational explanations for FPPs/TPPs.     

From Self-Enhancement to Supporting Censorship: The Third-Person Effect Process in the Case of Internet Pornography

This study examined the relationship between self-enhancement and third-person perception. It also investigated the behavioral consequences of third-person perception within a theory of reasoned action framework. A survey on the issue of Internet pornography was administered to 462 undergraduate students. A positive relationship was found between self-enhancement and third-person perception. Behavioral attitude emerged as a key mediator in the relationship between third-person perception and intention to support Internet censorship. Subjective norm overall was not an important factor in the perception–intention relationship. The lack of impact for subjective norm, however, had causes that varied across gender.     

Effects of Actual (Manipulated) and Perceived Similarity on Liking in Get-acquainted Interactions: The Role of Communication

The effects of actual and perceived similarity on interpersonal outcomes (e.g., liking) in initial interactions were examined in a live interaction paradigm, which also included a pre-interaction manipulation of bogus similarity or dissimilarity. Pairs of previously unacquainted students engaged in a two-segment interaction using a structured self-disclosure task. One member of the pair was assigned to disclose while the other listened in the first segment; the two then switched roles in the second segment. Participants who received bogus information (prior to the interaction) that the other was similar expected to experience more liking toward the other and enjoyment of the interaction, relative to those who received bogus dissimilarity information. The pre-interaction manipulation of similarity/dissimilarity, however, did not generally affect liking and other affiliative outcomes once the pairs interacted. Perceived similarity was strongly associated with liking, closeness, and the other affiliative outcomes. Furthermore, more support was found that liking leads to similarity (Morry, 2005) than that similarity leads to liking in the initial interactions.     

Not All Perceptual Gaps Were Created Equal: Explicating the Third-Person Perception (TPP) as a Cognitive Fallacy

Explicating the third-person perception (TPP) as a cognitive fallacy in the process of comparative social judgment of media effects, we propose that not all self–other perceptual gaps in media effects should be considered as TPP. When there is reasonably valid and accurate information regarding self vis-à-vis others on media consumption and vulnerability to media influence, the associated self–other gaps in media effects are not exaggerations, hence, not TPP. TPP results from cognitive biases in information retrieval and application in the process of comparative social judgments. Such biases are in the forms of self-other information differential, assimilation, contrast, and anchoring effects. Caveats in interpretation of extant evidence and implications for future TPP research are discussed.     

The Influence of Medical Orientation on Perceived Physician Credibility

This study assessed whether two medical orientations of physicians—biomedical vs biopsychosocial—influenced individuals’ perceptions of physician credibility. Participants read a vignette describing a physician communicating either a predominantly biomedical or a predominantly biopsychosocial orientation and then completed the Measure of Source Credibility in reference to the physician. Results indicate that physicians who display a biopsychosocial orientation were rated higher in perceived competence, character, and caring. Future researchers should address various effects of the medical context on physician credibility and how patients’ preferences regarding physicians’ medical orientation influence choice of and communication with physicians, patient satisfaction, and compliance.     

The Role of Perceived Control in Alcohol Prevention Campaigns

Optimistic bias provides a framework in this study to consider college students' knowledge about and perceptions of control over the effect of alcohol consumption on genes and health. Participants were 339 college students who completed a survey on genetics in the spring of 2001. This study confirmed that there is a significant relationship between knowledge and perceived control. In addition, the prediction that there are no differences between heavy and light drinkers with respect to their perceived knowledge and perceived control was supported. These results suggest the need to reconsider how prevention programs promote control over alcohol's use and effects because of the perceptions of invulnerability that may accompany feelings of control.     

The Effect of Perceived Teacher Burnout on Credibility

This study investigated the effect of perceived teacher burnout on perceived teacher credibility. One hundred eighty-two college students were randomly exposed to a written scenario manipulating the level of perceived teacher burnout (high or low) and responded to a scale measuring perceived teacher credibility in reference to the scenario. Results of one-way multivariate analyses of variance indicated that perceived teacher burnout has a negative impact on perceived teacher competence, caring, and trustworthiness. Low-burnout teachers are perceived as more credible than high-burnout teachers.     

The Influence of Media Type on the Perceived Influence of Media Contents and on the Support to Restrict Controversial Messages

The aim of this study was to explore the intersection between Medium Theory (MT) and Third-Person Effect (TPE) and evaluate how the research on MT can further our knowledge of the TPE. The study has proven that the perceptual hypothesis of the TPE is confirmed in different media contents and across media types (TV and the Internet) and that media type has an impact on the magnitude of the TPE. In addition, media type can also be a requisite for TPE to occur. On the other hand, the study shows that media type can have an influence on people’s support to restrict controversial content, in particular, pornography.     

埃米尔·胡尔亚:美国政党民调的先驱

本文借助美国学者部分研究成果,说明和分析了埃米尔·胡尔亚在政治民调演进史上的开拓性贡献。胡尔亚在对大量民调数据和原始资料进行鉴别、修正和分析的基础上,于1932年首次将民意调查用来跟踪选民情绪,确定民主党所要采取的运动策略,总统竞选破天荒地第一次在日益成型的民意测验指导下进行,富兰克林·罗斯福也成为把民意测验运用于竞选运动的第一位总统候选人。     

用户感知视角下高校图书馆微服务效果影响因素研究

[目的/意义] 从用户视角探讨高校图书馆微服务效果并识别对微服务效果具有显著影响的因素,为高校图书馆微服务建设提供指导建议。[方法/过程] 以信息系统成功模型为基础,纳入用户个体的认知因素,结合高校图书馆微服务自身特点构建高校图书馆微服务效果影响因素概念模型以及相关测评量表,采用问卷调查和结构方程模型方法进行实证研究。[结果/结论] 研究结果表明：整体来看,受访用户对高校图书馆微服务的效果评价较高;用户感知的微内容形式多样性、微知识内容帮助性、微平台稳定性、微服务交互性评价稍低。微服务质量、微内容质量、微平台系统质量会对用户满意产生直接正向的显著影响,且影响程度依次降低;用户满意对用户收益有直接正向的显著影响,同时微内容质量、微平台系统质量和微服务质量通过用户满意的中介作用间接影响用户收益;用户满意对持续使用意向的影响最大,其次为微服务质量、用户收益、微内容质量、个体认知,微平台系统质量影响最小。对于不同身份和不同使用情况的用户而言,部分变量存在显著的个体差异。     

直接知觉理论对书籍设计的作用与启示

书籍设计的核心诉求在于有意义信息的有效表达.美国著名心理学家吉布森的直接知觉理论从生态学视角科学地揭示了信息表达的核心特质,即对象中蕴含的行动可能性是如何通过直接的、互动的、动态的方式被给予我们的.这为我们深入理解书籍设计的本质和相应的方法论提供了重要借鉴,即在具体实践中要注重书籍设计的直接性、立体性、互动性和动态性.