An examination of teacher–student interactions in inclusive classrooms: teacher interviews and classroom observations

Teacher–student interactions in 17 inclusive classrooms were examined using a mixed‐methods approach that involved quantitative analysis of interactions recorded during classroom observations and follow‐up interviews with seven general educators. Observational findings suggest that classrooms were organised along traditional lines with the vast majority of interactions provided by general educators to the whole class, followed by brief intervals of 1 : 1 interactions directed towards individual students, most frequently children with disabilities. Interview findings suggest that teachers were aware of the greater individual attention devoted to students with disabilities and described a number of ways that they adapt their instruction that are consistent with the research on effective teaching. In addition, participants struggled with the dilemma of balancing their attention between students whom they perceived as needing it most and ensuring that the class as a whole made adequate progress. The analysis of both observational and interview data indicates that paraprofessionals were responsible for a large portion of instruction and curricular decision making for children with severe disabilities in these classrooms.     

Identified phases in the building and maintaining of positive teacher–student relationships

Teacher–student relationships are accepted as influential but the dynamics of those relationships are not well understood, especially with difficult students. A series of interviews were combined with classroom observations and written reflections to understand in what ways a teacher negotiated her relationship with a behaviorally challenging student throughout the school year. Four relationship phases, which are constantly revisited while establishing and maintaining relationships, were identified. Findings indicate that guided reflection and discussion were helpful in the negotiation process. Understandings of how relationships work, the effort required to maintain them and the support necessary for teachers are discussed.     

The protective role of teacher–student relationships against peer victimization and psychosocial distress

This study examined whether teacher–student relationships protect against peer victimization and its negative psychosocial effects (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress). Additionally, the influence of teacher–student relationships, peer relationships, and students’ perceptions of school order and discipline was investigated as these variables were expected to be negatively related to the former. Data were collected from high school‐aged adolescents (N = 539; 51% female) in the U.S. Southwest. Study results indicate that teacher–student relationships buffered against experiencing psychosocial distress associated with peer victimization. Although positive teacher–student relationships, peer relationships, and students’ perceptions of school order and discipline all were negatively associated with peer victimization and psychosocial distress, teacher–student relationships were robustly related to peer victimization and psychosocial distress over the influence of the previous variables. In other words, as a key study finding, teacher–student relationships may reduce the impact of peer victimization by mitigating its negative psychosocial effects in a robust yet relatively unexplored way. Therefore, although more research is needed, fostering positive teacher–student relationships might be an effective way to reduce peer victimization as well as its negative effects.     

Child race and gender as moderators of the association between teacher–child relationships and school adjustment

This investigation examines teacher and child perceptions of teacher–child relationships and early school adjustment among children (N = 157) in low‐income urban schools. Consistent with prior research, findings indicated that teacher–child relationships were associated with early school adjustment; however, the strength of this association varied depending on perspective (i.e., teacher vs. student) and by student characteristic. Associations between predictor and criterion variables were stronger for within‐rater perspectives than across raters. Children's race moderated the association between teacher–child relationships and early school adjustment when examining data from the same source (i.e., teacher) and across raters (i.e., teacher and student). Gender did not moderate these associations. The implications of these findings for future research focused on understanding teacher–child relationships are discussed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The impact of teacher–student relationships and classroom engagement on student growth percentiles of 7th and 8th grade students

The study examined the extent that teacher–student relationships (TSR) influenced basic psychological needs, engagement, and student growth using the self‐systems process model as a framework using structural equation modeling. Based on prior research, it was hypothesized that context (TSR) influenced self (basic psychological needs), which influenced action (engagement), and consequently, influenced outcome (student score and grade point average‐GPA). The findings of the study supported prior research that a TSR positively influenced levels of engagement in the classroom and, consequently, student outcomes as measured by classroom grade point average (GPA) and standardized assessment results. Using an identical methodological setup that substituted student growth percentiles (SGP) for scale scores, it was determined that TSR, basic psychological need satisfaction, and level of engagement do not influence SGP. Implications and potential contributions are discussed.     

Pedagogical content knowledge as reflected in teacher–student interactions: Analysis of two video cases

Despite the theorized centrality of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) for teaching, we have little evidence of the relationship between PCK and students' learning and know relatively little about how to help teachers to develop PCK. This study is a preliminary attempt to address these gaps in our knowledge of PCK through exploration of two German physics teachers' classroom instruction in consecutive lessons on optics. We show how video analysis can be used to gather evidence for one aspect of teachers' PCK: their use of content knowledge in interactions with students. We identify three potentially important characteristics of this aspect of PCK: flexibility, richness, and learner‐centeredness. By contrasting teachers with high and low gains in student knowledge and interest, we explore potential mechanisms by which this aspect of PCK might affect student outcomes. Because German teacher preparation programs emphasize content more than pedagogical knowledge, these cases contribute to our understanding of the support that teachers with strong content knowledge may need in translating this knowledge into a form useful for teaching.Fachdidaktisches Wissen ist aus theoretischer Sicht besonders zentral für das Unterrichten. Aus empirischer Sicht gibt es bislang allerdings noch wenig Evidenz für den Einsatz fachdidaktischen Wissens während des Unterrichtens und seine Bedeutung für das Lernen von Schülerinnen und Schülern. Außerdem wissen wir wenig darüber, wie Lehrpersonen über die Zeit fachdidaktisches Wissen entwickeln. Diese Studie ist ein Versuch, diese Wissenslücken zum fachdidaktischen Wissen von Lehrpersonen zu bearbeiten. Dabei wird exemplarisch der Unterricht von zwei deutschen Physiklehrern in aufeinanderfolgenden Stunden zum Thema Optik untersucht. Die Studie zeigt wie Videoanalysen genutzt werden können, um Belege für einen Aspekt des fachdidaktischen Wissens der Lehrpersonen zu sammeln: Ihre Nutzung von inhaltlichem Wissen in der Interaktion mit den Schülerinnen und Schülern. In dieser Studie werden drei potentiell wichtige Charakteristika dieses Aspekts des fachdidaktischen Wissens identifiziert: Flexibilität, Reichhaltigkeit und Schülerorientierung. Durch die Gegenüberstellung von Lehrpersonen mit hohem und niedrigem Wissens‐ und Interessenzuwachs wurden potentielle Mechanismen untersucht, durch die dieser Aspekt des fachdidaktischen Wissens die Lernergebnisse von Schülerinnen und Schülern beeinflussen kann. Die Lehrerausbildung in Deutschland betont das inhaltliche Wissen stärker als das fachdidaktische Wissen. Die ausgewählten Fälle beschreiben, welche Unterstützung Lehrpersonen mit einem hohen fachlichen Wissen benötigen, um dieses Wissen so zu verändern, dass es für das Unterrichten genutzt werden kann. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 49: 1211–1239, 2012     

Concurrent relationships between two behavioral rating scales for teachers: An examination of self-control,social competence,and school behavioral adjustment

This investigation describes the uses and concurrent relations of two behavioral rating scales for teachers: The Teacher's Self-Control Rating Scale (TSCRS) and The Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment. Both instruments were completed by the regular classroom teachers of 92 students who were referred to multidisciplinary teams because of perceived academic problems. Pearson product-moment correlations between the two instruments were all statistically significant, indicating moderate to high levels of concurrent validity between the two instruments and significant overlap between the constructs they measure, particularly the constructs of behavioral self-control and school behavioral adjustment. Comparisons of the study population with instrument norm scores of typical students indicated that the referred group was rated as having significantly lower levels of social-behavioral competency than the norm groups.     

The value of an emergent notion of authenticity: Examples from two student/teacher–scientist partnership programs

We make the case for an emergent notion of authenticity of science based on systems theory and neo‐Piagetian thought. We propose that authentic science is an emergent property of a dynamic system of learning precipitated by the interactions among students, teachers, and scientists that occur within the contexts defined by the internal and external constraints of the cultures of the schools and communities within which they operate. Authenticity as an emergent property of the learning process challenges the basis for many science curricula and current pedagogical practices that take scientists' science as their norm and that assume a priori that such is authentic, i.e., it practices preauthentication. We argue that what constitutes authentic science can be taught neither in the traditional didactic modes nor through simulations of scientists' science in the classroom. Instead, authenticity needs to be seen as emergent and as diverse in meaning. To illustrate this point, we draw from two different face‐to‐face, teacher/student–scientist partnership programs. Both studies support a notion of authenticity that emerges as teachers, students, and scientists come to interact, make meaning of, and come to own the activities they engage in collaboratively. We conclude by considering the implications of such an analysis for science education. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 40: 737–756, 2003     

The effects on students' emotional and behavioural difficulties of teacher–student interactions,students' social skills and classroom context

Children's emotional and behavioural difficulties are the result of multiple individual, social and contextual factors working in concert. The current paper proposes a theoretical framework for interpreting students' emotional and behavioural difficulties in classrooms, by taking into consideration teacher–student interactions, students' social skills and classroom context. Based on Bronfenbrenner's model, according to which process, person and context are the main sources of children's development, the current paper combines three theoretical approaches: firstly, in terms of process, the systems communication approach, which refers to teacher–student interactions; secondly, in terms of person, social and emotional learning, which refers to children's social skills; and thirdly, in terms of classroom context, the achievement goal theory, with its emphasis on the mastery of classroom goal structure. Empirical support for the framework resulted in the administration of four instruments to 962 primary students: (a) QTI for teacher–student interactions, (b) MESSY for students' social skills; (c) CGS for classroom context; and (d) SDQ for students' emotional and behavioural difficulties. It was found that students' possession of social skills had a prominent role in the prediction of emotional and behavioural difficulties, while teacher–student interactions and classroom context also affected students' emotional and behavioural difficulties. This perspective provides educators with a theoretical and practical tool for understanding emotional and behavioural difficulties.     

Teachers, student achievement and national income: A cross-national examination of relationships and interactions

Despite costly global efforts to improve and reward teacher qualifications like education and experience, little international evidence exists on the relationship between these attributes and student achievement. It is also unclear whether these attributes are more important for disadvantaged children, or in lower-income countries. This article examines the relationships among teacher characteristics (experience, education, readiness to teach, and gender), student background, and fourth grade students’ mathematics and science achievement across 25 diverse countries participating in the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. The analysis revealed limited evidence that the teacher characteristics deemed important in teacher upgrading and compensation are systematically related to student test scores, or that these characteristics are more important for lower-income students. It also found no relationship between national income and the importance of these characteristics. These results add to increasing evidence that efforts to improve teacher quality must look beyond simply increasing and rewarding measurable teacher qualifications like education and experience. Further, those who design cross-national studies should consider developing richer measures of teacher skill and knowledge.     

Teacher–student relationships,psychological need satisfaction,and happiness among diverse students

Teacher–student relationships have been linked to autonomous motivation and achievement. However, relatively little is known about whether satisfying students’ psychological needs mediates the association between teacher–student relationships and student happiness. Furthermore, this relationship needs to be examined in samples of students from different ethnic and racial backgrounds. In this structural equation modeling study (N = 1,961), we found that teacher–student relationships were positively and moderately associated with the satisfaction of psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Satisfying psychological needs, in turn, was moderately positively associated with happiness. These findings held across African American, Asian American, and Latinx subsamples. For the overall sample, students in higher grade levels perceived that their psychological needs were met to a lesser degree than students in earlier grades. However, only the Latinx subsample replicated this effect. Teacher–student relationships may promote happiness via meeting psychological needs.     

Teacher power and children's loneliness: Moderating effects of teacher‐child relationships and peer relationships

Teacher‐child relationships and peer relationships are important predictors of children's loneliness. However, few studies have examined the potential and adverse relationship between teacher power and children's loneliness. Thus, we explicitly explored whether teacher power is related to children's loneliness and examined the potential moderating roles of interpersonal relationships (i.e., teacher‐child relationships and peer relationships) in 888 Chinese children. Moreover, this study measured teacher power with children's figure drawings. The results showed that teacher power was significantly and positively related to children's loneliness, and both teacher‐child relationships and peer relationships moderated the link between the two variables. Specifically, the adverse correlation between teacher power and children's loneliness was not significant among children with high‐quality teacher‐child relationships. Similarly, the negative effect of teacher power on children's loneliness was not found among children with a high level of peer relationships. Therefore, our results confirmed that the adverse relationship between teacher power and children's loneliness, and the protective roles of high quality of teacher‐child relationships and high levels of peer relationships in this relationship. Potential implications and future research directions are discussed.     

Improvisation: An analytic tool for examining teacher–child interactions in the early childhood classroom

This article explores the use of improvisation (improv) as a lens for viewing and describing teacher–child interactions. The author describes the relationship between the principles of improv and the characteristics of responsive teaching, and how improv can be used as a lens for seeing relational activity. The author hypothesizes that improv would provide a valuable tool for understanding and describing what is happening between teachers and children. An in-depth case study was conducted of an experienced early childhood teacher in a play-based classroom. Analysis was done using both the codes derived from the teacher–child interaction literature and improv theory. Improv analysis offered a nuanced picture of what early childhood teachers are doing in practice. The findings revealed that using improv provides a lens for seeing teacher–child interactions as an ensemble activity and what the teacher is doing in terms of its usefulness to the activity. While this study focused on a single teacher in one classroom, the findings demonstrate the potential of an improv lens for developing and deepening our understanding of early childhood teaching.     

Toward a further understanding of teachers’ reports of early teacher–child relationships: Examining the roles of behavior appraisals and attributions

This study examined teachers’ reports of early teacher–child relationships by focusing on their assessments of the severity and the causes of children's social behaviors. Eighty-one kindergarten teachers filled out questionnaires about socially inhibited, hyperactive, and average children (n = 237) selected from their own classes. Multilevel analyses indicated that teachers reported less close and more dependent relationships for the inhibited and hyperactive versus the average children, and more conflictual relationships for the hyperactive versus the average children. These differences were largely mediated by teachers’ perceptions of children's personal behavior problems. In addition, we found that the teachers’ control attributions for children's social behaviors increased the link between children's perceived (personal and social) problems and relationship closeness. Results further support the idea that teachers’ relationship reports are personal, evaluative accounts rather than objective measures of teacher–child interactions.     

The cultural and emotional politics of teacher–parent interactions

This article seeks to explore the ways in which the culture and organization of teaching influences the experiences and emotions teachers report in their interactions with parents. Hargreaves’ framework, based on the emotional politics of teaching, is used here to analyze fifty-three primary and secondary teachers’ interview responses in which they described interactions with parents that elicited negative and positive emotions. Parent–teacher interactions are explored as emotional practices that are inseparable from teachers’ moral purposes, shaped by influences of culture and relationship, and inextricably interconnected elements of status and power. Data suggest that the culture and organization of teaching influence the values, discourses and senses of purpose teachers hold and thus the experiences and emotions they report in their interactions with parents. The article closes with suggestions for further research and policy considerations.     

Rhyme Awareness,Orthographic Analogy Use,Phonemic Awareness and Reading: An examination of relationships

It is suggested that children learning to read require phonemic awareness before being able to make orthographic analogies during reading (Ehri & Robbins, 1992) and that phonemic awareness is a better discriminator of children who will benefit from orthographic analogies than rhyme awareness (Walton, 1995). It has also been found that orthographic analogy use does not make an independent contribution to early reading ability (Wood, 1999). The present study investigates which skills are best able to account for orthographic analogy use during early reading and tests the finding that there is no independent association between reading ability and orthographic analogy use. Results suggest that phonemic awareness and reading experience are best able to account for analogy use, and that orthographic analogy use does directly contribute to early reading ability. Rhyme awareness was also associated with orthographic analogy use, but this contribution was less than that of phonemic awareness, and was not significant after the contribution of phonemic awareness was taken into account.     

An examination of psychological characteristics and their relationship to academic entitlement among millennial and nonmillennial college students

Academic entitlement (AE) has been a concern among college educators due to millennial college students entering the educational setting. Although there is theoretical justification to support such conjecture, it remains unclear whether AE is more prevalent among this generation. The present study examines the relationship between narcissism, self-esteem, gratitude, and AE between millennial and nonmillennial college students. Among millennial college students, narcissism, self-esteem, and gratitude were found to be significant predictors of AE; however, among nonmillennial college students, only self-esteem was found to be a significant predictor. Findings were consistent with the literature in that they demonstrate that millennial college students may be more prone to narcissism than previous generations. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.