Effects of false-start disqualification rules on response-times of elite-standard sprinters

The 100 ms ruling for false start disqualification at athletic competitions governed by the International Association of Athletics Federations has been in force since the early 1990s. Throughout this period, there have been marked changes to the rules that govern the disqualification of athletes from sprint events incorporating starts from blocks. This study analysed all available World and European Championship response-time (RT) data from 1999 to 2014 to examine effects of rule changes on competition RT at major championships. The exponentially modified Gaussian distribution was used to model RT and make comparisons relative to athletes’ sex, ruling periods and competition rounds. Revised RT thresholds of 115 ms and 119 ms were identified for men and women, respectively, indicating that the current 100 ms rule could result in some false starts not being detected in competitive athletics. The study proposes that when using existing International Association of Athletics Federations approved systems, the false start detection threshold should be increased and that men and women athletes should have different thresholds because of substantial evidence of a sex-based difference in RT in elite-standard athletes.     

中华人民共和国第10届冬季运动会短道速滑比赛调研报告--冠军运动员在单项比赛中完成超越的时机及速度

对我国第 10届冬季运动会短道速滑比赛单项每轮次、每组单圈领先运动员及成绩进行现场调研 ,对比赛的概况、特点、比赛结果、冠军运动员完成超越的时机及速度进行了分析。结果显示 ,在 5 0 0 m比赛中 ,运动员采取抢占有利位置 ,全程领滑战术而取胜 ;在 10 0 0 m比赛中 ,运动员采取中途加速超越对手 ;在长距离比赛中 ,运动员采用后程加速夺取胜利。     

Pacing profiles and pack running at the IAAF World Half Marathon Championships

The aim of this study was to describe the pacing profiles and packing behaviour of athletes competing in the IAAF World Half Marathon Championships. Finishing and split times were collated for 491 men and 347 women across six championships. The mean speeds for each intermediate 5 km and end 1.1 km segments were calculated, and athletes grouped according to finishing time. The best men and women largely maintained their split speeds between 5 km and 15 km, whereas slower athletes had decreased speeds from 5 km onwards. Athletes were also classified by the type of packing behaviour in which they engaged. Those who ran in packs throughout the race had smaller decreases in pace than those who did not, or who managed to do so only to 5 km. While some athletes’ reduced speeds from 15 to 20 km might have been caused by fatigue, it was also possibly a tactic to aid a fast finish that was particularly beneficial to medallists. Those athletes who ran with the same competitors throughout sped up most during the finish. Athletes are advised to identify rivals likely to have similar abilities and ambitions and run with them as part of their pre-race strategy.     

The relative power output and relative lean body mass of World and Olympic male and female champions with implications for gender equity

Abstract

A uniform measure of the gender-related differential performance of female and male Olympic and World champions is proposed: relative power output applied to the environment. Laws of physics are employed to derive equations for estimating relative power output. In previous controlled laboratory studies, equally trained male and female athletes were shown to have a relative power output not significantly different from relative lean body mass. As to the estimated power output for 32 Olympic and World championship events contested between 1976 and 2004, eight in running, four in speed skating, three in jumping, twelve in swimming and five in rowing: 100% of the 32 event mean percentage differences in power output and 96% of the 411 event percentage differences in power output are within one standard deviation of the appropriate lean body mass percentage difference, consistent with equality of training. For 1952 – 1972, significantly higher percentage differences in power output are estimated in running and swimming compared with 1976 – 2004, consistent with women being less well trained than men during that earlier period. It is noted that efforts in recent years to provide equality of opportunity for female athletes coincide with equalization of estimated relative power output in competition with the relative lean body mass.     

Outstanding performances during elite-standard short and middle-distance finals and the hyperandrogenism regulation—A detailed analysis of Caster Semenya’s results

ABSTRACT

Recently, there has been much controversy over the International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF) regulations regarding eligibility to compete and natural testosterone levels in female athletes. Much interest lies in the analysis of Caster Semenya's extraordinary performance. The objective of this work were, a) Complete an analysis of Caster Semenya's results during the 800m finals and b) search for existing similar performances by other female athletes. We analysed the results of the finals of all IAAF World Championships and Olympic Games from 1984–2016, including the 800m results of the Diamond Leagues 2016–2018. Exponential curves were fit to the data to characterise and predict performance for each event. Caster Semenya's finishing times before her ineligibility to compete and after the suspension of the IAAF hyperandrogenism regulation were found to be 1.24% and 1.49%, respectively, faster than the characteristic performance of the elite-standard in the women’s 800m final. Other female athletes, with finishing times faster than the ones predicted by the characteristic curves were also discovered. The percentage difference in performance between Caster Semenya and the other participants did not reach 3% in the 800m event. No conclusions can be drawn regarding extraordinary results ever performed during the 100m, 200m or 400m finals.     

Hyperandrogenic athletes: performance differences in elite-standard 200m and 800m finals

The purpose of this study was to examine whether the difference in elite-standard track and field performance between women athletes with and without hyperandrogenism reaches the 10–12% difference in performance between men and women, using only results from elite-standard track and field final competitions. Officially available data from two hyperandrogenic women (Caster Semenya and Dutee Chand) were compared with the characteristic performance of 200m and 800m elite-standard finals. The finishing times of Caster Semenya, before her ineligibility to compete in 2009 and after the suspension of the 2011 IAAF Hyperandrogenism Regulations were found to be respectively 1.24% and 1.49% faster than the predicted performance in 800m finals. When compared with the result of the second classified, the difference was respectively 0.65% and 2.08%. The analysis of the finishing times of Dutee Chand did not lead to any conclusions due to the lack of available data. The present study indicates that the percentage difference in performance between women with and women without hyperandrogenism does not reach the 3% difference requested by the Court of Arbitration for Sport for the reinstatement of the Hyperandrogenism Regulations, neither does it reach the 10% accepted range of difference in performance between men and women.     

第28-33届世界蹦床锦标赛竞争格局分析与中国蹦床发展策略研究

近6届蹦床世锦赛参赛国家数量呈“倒U型”发展,在运动员数量方面女运动员的参赛数量明显低于男运动员;在参赛项目上网上项目运动员的数量显著高于单跳和小蹦床项目,单跳和小蹦床项目之间的运动员数量差异不大;蹦床项目的竞争格局开始走向多极化,在全世界的竞争区域主要集中在欧洲、亚洲和北美洲,从奖牌的地域归属特征来看,我国在东京奥运会的竞争对手主要来源于欧洲和北美洲的选手;世锦赛中男子网上个人项目冠军成绩在60.795-62.280分之间,女子网上个人项目冠军成绩在55.990-57.180分之间;中国蹦床队在近6届蹦床世锦赛中一直处于奖牌榜首位,男、女运动员的综合获奖比率在逐渐接近,差距在逐渐缩小,男女网上项目实力向均衡化方向发展。     

Differences in Mood Among Elite Athletesin Artistic Roller,Figure, and Inline Speed SkatingBefore and After Competition

This study explored whether elite artistic skating athletes differ from elite inline speed skating athletes in terms of mood as assessed before and after competi-tion. Its secondary purpose was to determine whether mood states in athletes generally differ before competition, as compared to after. Thirty-nine athletes in artistic and inline speed skating participated in this study during the German national and European championships. Participants were top-ranked elite skat-ers, including 17 German national champions, nine European and four World champions as well as four participants in recent Olympic Games. Artistic skat-ers exhibited more delight and less listlessness both before and after competi-tion. Inline speed skaters reported greater arousal before competition, whereas artistic skaters reported more arousal after competition. All skaters reported more activation before competition as compared to after competition. These results have implications for athletes’ preparation for and participation in sports competition.     

The AGTR2 rs11091046 (A>C) polymorphism and power athletic status in top-level Brazilian athletes

The main purpose of this study was to investigate if the rs11091046 (A>C) polymorphism in AGTR2 gene is associated with athletic status in top-level athletes from Brazil. Since the AGTR2 gene is located on the X chromosome, the case-control association study was done separately for women and men. The female cohort was composed of 205 athletes and 241 non-athletes, and the male cohort was composed of 419 athletes and 490 non-athletes. We did not identify an association between the C-allele and the endurance phenotype. However, power athletes had a higher frequency of the A-allele. In women, A/A genotype was overrepresented in international-level power group compared with non-athletes or international-level endurance athletes (23.2% vs. 16.6% or 8.8%, respectively; p < 0.05). In men, the A-allele frequency observed in power athletes or international-level power athletes was statistically different from that observed in non-athletes (51.6% or 57.8% vs. 40.4%; p < 0.009). Furthermore, men sprinters with the A-allele showed significantly faster personal best times for the 100 m than those with the C-allele (10.56 ± 0.32 s vs. 10.93 ± 0.49 s; p < 0.02). In conclusion, it was found that the AGTR2 A-allele is a candidate genetic marker for top-level power athletes.     

Influence of starting position on finishing position in World Cup 500 m short track speed skating

Abstract

Top short track speed skaters and their coaches have suspected that starting positions influence finishing positions, especially in the 500 m racing distance. The objective of this study was to examine systematically the influence of starting position on finishing position in 500 m short track speed skating. The data analysed included results from World Cup 500 m races ranging from the 1999 – 2000 season through to the end of the 2003 – 2004 season. All 500 m men's and women's races with four skaters starting and finishing (preliminaries, heats, quarter-finals, semi-finals and finals) were included in the data set. The association between starting position and finishing position was examined using Kendall's tau. Results show that for both sexes, there is a significant positive correlation between starting position and finishing position (P < 0.001). This effect is generally more pronounced in semi-finals and finals than it is in preliminaries, heats and quarter-finals. Strategies to counter this inequity are proposed, drawing upon similar experiences in other sports.     

Sleep/wake behaviour of endurance cyclists before and during competition

Good sleep is critical for optimising recovery and athletic performance. Yet, few studies have investigated how athletes sleep before and during competition. The aim of this study was to determine whether such sleep is poorer than that before a usual training day. Twenty-one male endurance cyclists’ (age: 19.9 ± 1.7 years) sleep/wake behaviour was assessed using wrist activity monitors for 11 nights, including a six-night baseline training phase, three nights before competition and two nights during competition. Cyclists had less sleep on the night before competition (6.5 ± 0.9 h) and during the first night of competition (6.8 ± 0.8 h) than at baseline (7.4 ± 0.6 h). Cyclists also went to bed and woke up earlier during competition than at baseline. Competition schedules and competition itself can disrupt the sleep/wake behaviour of athletes during competition. Future investigations should examine sleep during three stages of competition (i.e. before, during and after competition). This will help coaches develop a greater understanding of how sleep changes during different phases of competition and enable them to plan post-competition training programmes to ensure appropriate rest and recovery is obtained.     

Senior men’s pacing profiles at the IAAF World Cross Country Championships

Abstract

The aim of this study was to describe pacing profiles used by senior men competing in the World Cross Country Championships. Lap times were collated for 1273 competitors across 10 races. Each individual’s lap times were expressed as a percentage of the eventual winner’s lap times, and athletes were grouped according to finishing position. Most athletes started the race by following the pace set by the leaders but slowed relative to the winner with each successive lap. The gold medallists were faster than the other medallists only after the final lap (P < 0.001). Most athletes who dropped out (61%) had completed the first lap within 105% of the winner’s lap time. The medallists used a strategy of running close to the front from an early stage, but did not separate themselves from other top 15 finishers until halfway, with the eventual medal positions decided even closer to the finish. Athletes finishing further down had positive pacing profiles relative to the winner, possibly because of early fatigue caused by a relatively quick first lap. Athletes should note that a patient approach during the early stages can benefit not only the mass field but also those who aim to win a medal.     

北京奥运会女子三级跳远决赛运动员的竞技能力

对第29届北京奥运会女子三级跳远决赛运动员的基本情况、前后3跳成绩、成功率、速度变化特征等进行研究。结果表明：32～33岁是女子三级跳远运动员展示最佳竞技能力的成熟期,及格赛成绩平均比值约为97．03％。决赛成绩均达到个人最好成绩的,平均比值约99．8％。第2、3跳是决赛阶段出现最佳成绩的关键跳次,第2跳成功率最高,达100％;其次是第1跳的成功率也达到75％;第3、4跳次的成功率相等。前3名运动员中有两人的助跑速度达到8．16m／s以上,后3跳的成功率有所降低。     

A descriptive study of step alignment and foot positioning relative to the tee by professional rugby union goal-kickers

This study describes foot positioning during the final two steps of the approach to the ball amongst professional rugby goal-kickers. A 3D optical motion capture system was used to test 15 goal-kickers performing 10 goal-kicks. The distance and direction of each step, as well as individual foot contact positions relative to the tee, were measured. The intra- and inter-subject variability was calculated as well as the correlation (Pearson) between the measurements and participant anthropometrics. Inter-subject variability for the final foot position was lowest (placed 0.03 ± 0.07 m behind and 0.33 ± 0.03 m lateral to the tee) and highest for the penultimate step distance (0.666 ± 0.149 m), performed at an angle of 36.1 ± 8.5° external to the final step. The final step length was 1.523 ± 0.124 m, executed at an external angle of 35.5 ± 7.4° to the target line. The intra-subject variability was very low; distances and angles for the 10 kicks varied per participant by 1.6–3.1 cm and 0.7–1.6°, respectively. The results show that even though the participants had variability in their run-up to the tee, final foot position next to the tee was very similar and consistent. Furthermore, the inter- and intra-subject variability could not be attributed to differences in anthropometry. These findings may be useful as normative reference data for coaching, although further work is required to understand the role of other factors such as approach speed and body alignment.     

备战要诀

眼下,我们正值备战奥运的关键时刻。作为竞技体育的"老兵",谈谈多年备战的体会与感受,供同行借鉴,以求各项目能联系实际,触类旁通,真正为我所用。如有点滴功效,则不胜欣慰。一、调动问题比赛争胜,调动为先。调动是一种水平,亦是一种能力,而它的实现是有条件的。我们这里所指的调动,实际上是一门大赛前的必备课,就是通过认知比赛、实力评估、心理定位、心态调节和赛前准备,提高运动员的求战欲、求胜欲、表现欲     

基于共生视角对欧洲冠军联赛竞赛制度解读——以及给我国体育职业化的启迪

本文运用文献资料法、共生原理分析方法等,对欧洲足球冠军联赛竞赛制度进行了原理性的解析。分析认为:在现有欧洲足球大环境下,足球竞赛制度安排在球队资格获取上突出高共生度;在竞赛约束上选择一体化、互惠共生的模式;在竞赛开展环境上依托足球文化及商家关注以及共生界面上体现共生利益形成等内容,本质上反映了竞赛制度设计的共生思想,再现了当今欧冠联盟内外部关系的基本生存方式。只有选择科学合理的竞赛制度才能产生更多共生利益,才更有利于体育组织及其产业链系统的发展。     

Quantification of improvement in triathlon swimming performance by textile speedsuits

To quantify swimwear-induced differences under triathlon-specific conditions, we compare the swimming performance, the metabolic cost, and the standardised passive drag of well-trained triathletes when wearing (1) five speedsuit models by different manufacturers from 2017, (2) usual swimming trunks/swimsuits (men/women), and (3) individually preferred competition trisuits. Because of the complexity of the underlying hydrodynamic and biomechanical effects, three separate experimental stages were realized, each with 6–12 well-trained short- and middle-distance triathletes (male and female, mean age 22?±?5 years) from the German national elite or junior elite level. All measurements were conducted on the basis of real athletes’ motion in the water to correctly account for all relevant effects, including skin and muscle vibrations. First, the athletes took part in a series of 100 m short-distance tests at maximal effort in a long-course pool to quantify swim-time differences in absolute terms. Second, the subjects completed multiple submaximal 400 m tests at 95% of their individual maximal speed in a swimming flume, with their swimwear-related differences in metabolic load being explored in terms of blood lactate and heart rate. Third, the passive drag of the triathletes was measured in the flume during a towing test under standardised conditions in velocity steps of 0.2 m/s within the triathlon-relevant range of 1.1–1.7 m/s. In all three test stages, the speedsuits exhibited performance advantages over trunks/swimsuits: in the 100 m maximal test, the mean swim time with speedsuits decreased by 0.99?±?0.30 s (????1.5%). During the 400 m submaximal flume test, the mean heart rate showed a reduction of 7?±?2 bpm (? ??4.0%), while the post-exercise blood lactate accumulation decreased by 1.0?±?0.2 mmol/L (? ??26.2%). Similarly, the passive drag in the towing test was lowered by 3.2?±?1.0 W (????6.9% as for normalised power and ??5.2% as for normalised force) for the speedsuits. Wearing speedsuits instead of usual trunks/swimsuits is shown to improve the swimming performance and to reduce the metabolic cost for well-trained triathletes under triathlon-specific test conditions. The reduction in passive drag of the passively towed athlete’s body due specific speedsuit surface textures seems to be only one reason for performance advantages: the effective reduction in muscular, soft tissue, and skin vibrations at the trunk and thighs during active propulsive motion of the swimmer seems to further contribute substantially.     

伦敦奥运会激流回旋皮划艇决赛信息比较分析

运用文献资料法、数理统计法和对比分析法对伦敦奥运会激流回旋男子单人皮艇、女子单人皮艇、男子单人划艇和男子双人划艇决赛的国家、最终成绩、运动员的年龄、身高与体重等有关信息进行了研究,认为当前激流回旋世界格局依然是欧洲主导,但分布较广;世界优秀运动员年龄及形态数据为国内选材提供了参考;男子双人划艇竞争最为激烈,其次是男子单人皮艇。     

Step characteristic interaction and asymmetry during the approach phase in long jump

The aim of this study was to investigate the relative influence of step length (SL) and step frequency (SF) on step velocity (SV) during the approach run of high-level long jumpers and to quantify the asymmetry of these step characteristics. Spatiotemporal data of the approach run were collected during national competition from 10 long jumpers (age 26.2 ± 4.1 years, height 1.84 ± 0.06 m, mass 72.77 ± 3.23 kg, personal best performance 7.96 ± 0.30 m). Analyses were conducted for total approach, early approach and late approach. For the total approach 4/10 athletes were SF reliant and 6/10 athletes favoured neither characteristic. At the early approach, 3/10 athletes were SF reliant and 7/10 athletes favoured neither. During late approach 2/10 athletes demonstrated SL reliance, 7/10 athletes were SF reliant and 1/10 athletes favoured neither. Four athletes displayed significant asymmetry for SL and three for SF. However, no athletes demonstrated significant asymmetry for SV indicating that the asymmetrical demands of take-off do not have a marked influence on step characteristic asymmetry, probably due to the constraints of the event. Consideration should be given to the potentially conflicting demands between limbs for individual athletes.     

第30届伦敦奥运会女子400m栏项目运动员的年龄、身体形态及竞技表现研究

对第30届伦敦奥运会田径项目女子400m栏决赛参赛运动员的年龄、身体形态、成绩的稳定性、比赛发挥、发挥情况和各个赛次中成绩进行分析。结果表明：参赛运动员平均年龄为25．88±2．95岁,奖牌获得者出现大龄化特征,女子400m栏运动员平均身高为174．25±4．89em,平均身高并不是太高,但个别运动员呈现出高大化发展特征;半决赛阶段运动员成绩稳定性最好,决赛阶段成绩离散度最大,三个赛次呈现出“低-中-高”状态,这与运动员对赛次中发挥情况的重要性相吻合,正好适应运动员在不同赛次的发挥情况;受个人竞技能力所限,女子400m栏参赛运动员在决赛阶段的平均发挥率最高,而预赛阶段运动员的发挥率最差,只有极少数运动员在三个赛次中表现出赛季最佳成绩。因此,在训练中应大力培养运动员尽快进入比赛状态的能力,并制定出运动员参加大赛的训练周期计划。